Citation

Ezeme, P. E., & Ohabuenyi, J. (2026). Socio-Political Analysis of Land Deals in Uganda and Nigeria. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(2), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/8

¹Ezeme, Paulinus Ejiofor

Department of Political Science,

Faculty of the Social Sciences,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: paulinus.ezeme@unn.edu.ng

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3638-7360 

^2**Jonas Ohabuenyi**

Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: jonas.ohabuenyi@unn.edu.ng  

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3614-7864

Corresponding author***

Abstract

Transparent transactions, the protection of ownership rights, investor security, and sustainable growth all depend on effective land management. With an emphasis on ownership rights, deal procedures, and investor protection, this study contrasts the legal systems controlling real estate transactions in Nigeria and Uganda. Using a doctrinal research approach, this study looked at a number of significant legal sources, including the Land Use Act of 1978 in Nigeria, the Land Act of Uganda, pertinent constitutional provisions, and court decisions. Secondary sources include reports and academic articles. Important results show that Nigeria’s centralised approach, which gives state governors control over property, has frequently resulted in power abuse and erected obstacles to profitable land investment. In contrast, Uganda’s Constitution recognises a number of tenure arrangements that improve transaction security by protecting individual rights, spousal consent, and public access to property registration data. Additionally, it ensures that its residents possess property. According to the study’s findings, Uganda’s strategy offers investors and landowners clearer protections and is more in line with international best practices. In order to boost investor confidence and lower the risk of litigation, it advises Nigeria to think about amending its Land Use Act to add clauses requiring spousal permission, boundary confirmations by nearby landowners, and harsher penalties for fraudulent transactions. Nigeria’s legal system would be enhanced by these changes, which would also make it more favourable to investment and sustainable land management.

Keywords: Land deals, Land Use Act, Land management, Legal structure, National development

Introduction

            Long-term national development depends on an efficient land management system that has an impact on the social, economic, and environmental facets of a country. Land administration is more than just managing ownership; it includes the intricate social, economic, cultural, technological, and legal frameworks that regulate how land is used, transferred, and maintained (Anierobi et al., 2024). In order to achieve societal benefits while safeguarding the rights of individuals, communities, and future generations, these frameworks are crucial. One of the fundamental ideas of land management is intergenerational equality, which highlights that land resources should not only benefit the current generation but also be preserved to meet the demands of future generations (Okpa et al., 2022). As urbanisation and population growth puts unprecedented pressure on land resources, especially in areas that are rapidly growing, this concept is becoming more and more crucial (Eze et al., 2022). Therefore, the primary objectives of national land administration laws and policies must be equitable distribution and sustainable management.Legal frameworks are essential for controlling land transactions in order to advance transparency, protect ownership rights, and enhance commercial security. Strong legal frameworks allow investors and stakeholders to do business with confidence because they know their investments are secure (Obasi et al., 2024). These frameworks also prevent fraud while promoting moral and lawful transactions. In regions with high land demand and frequent changes in land use, well-defined legal laws are required to ensure orderly urban expansion and lessen the risks associated with rapid urbanisation (Chinweze et al., 2024).In countries like Nigeria and Uganda, legal regulations specify the responsibilities, rights, and required documentation for real estate transactions. However, the structure, application, and enforcement of these laws varied widely according to a variety of historical, cultural, and political variables. Nigeria’s Land Use Act of 1978, for instance, grants state governors trustee authority over all land under their control (land Use Act, 1978). Although this paradigm was intended to promote fair land distribution and speed land administration, it has often led to the concentration of power in the hands of governors, who may have substantial control over the distribution and management of land. This centralised arrangement has raised concerns about accountability and transparency since governors can operate as de facto landlords rather than impartial guardians (Elias, 2024).Nonetheless, Uganda’s land management system has a number of tenure systems, each with its own set of rules and ownership rights, such as Mailo, Customary, Freehold, and Leasehold (Musinguzi et al., 2021). According to Magadze and Ajah  (2025), these institutions are intended to satisfy a range of social and cultural demands and are a reflection of Uganda’s colonial past. However, international investors who are not familiar with local laws and customs may find this variety of tenure regimes confusing (Ajah et al., 2025). With an emphasis on each nation’s legislative frameworks, this article seeks to provide a thorough legal study of land transfers in Nigeria and Uganda. To make wise choices and successfully negotiate the problems pertaining to property ownership, tenure, and rights in these two countries, investors must be aware of these distinctions.

In order to assess, interpret, and synthesise legal texts, principles, and reliable sources, this study uses a doctrinal research technique, which is frequently employed in legal studies (Osadebe et al., 2024). This issue is a good fit for doctrinal study since it enables a thorough examination of the existing legal frameworks governing land transfers in Nigeria and Uganda. Using this approach, the study examines the legislation and case law of each jurisdiction for significant parallels, discrepancies, and possible opportunities for reform. The investigation makes use of both primary and secondary materials.The fundamental legal rights and principles pertaining to property ownership and management are established by the constitutions of Uganda and Nigeria, among other significant sources that form the basis of this study. Two important laws that control land tenure, transactions, and property rights in each nation are the Land Use Act of 1978 in Nigeria and the Land Act (as amended) in Uganda. Secondary sources provide context, criticism, and more viewpoints for this analysis. A thorough grasp of the historical, social, and economic elements influencing land governance in many nations can be found in scholarly books, periodicals, novels, and reliable media coverage.

Legal Structures

Since it outlines the rights and obligations of both the government and its citizens, a nation’s legal system serves as the foundation for regulating land transactions. Because they promote fairness, efficiency, and transparency in land transactions, these frameworks are crucial to the development of the country and the defence of property rights. Inheritance, land ownership, transfer, and conflict resolution are just a few of the many topics covered by land laws (Ajah et al., 2025). In addition to protecting property rights, a well-designed legal framework encourages fair land allocation, investor confidence, and sustainable land management techniques. This section looks at the advantages, disadvantages, and adherence to international best practices of Nigeria’s and Uganda’s land transfer laws.

Uganda’s Legal Structure for Land Sales

With explicit legal criteria in the Land Act and the Constitution offering a solid foundation for land ownership and transfers, Uganda’s land deal regulations offer a more organised and transparent system than Nigeria’s (Gerald, 2021). In contrast to Nigeria’s model under the Land Use Act, which placed property ownership under the state, Uganda’s Constitution, specifically Article 237, grants land ownership to Ugandan citizens. This disparity reveals a basic difference in how land rights are distributed and administered in the two nations. Additionally, traditional, freehold, mailo, and leasehold land tenure are the four main categories recognised under Uganda’s Land Act of 1998 (Musinguzi et al., 2021). Because each of these tenure systems is governed by particular laws and regulations, land ownership and transactions are handled more carefully (Obala & Kitulazzi, 2024). It is essential for both landowners and investors to understand these differences since each kind of tenure has unique legal requirements, particularly with relation to succession, transfer, and registration.For example, the Land Act imposes restrictions on the Mailo land tenure, which is exclusive to Uganda and gives landowners everlasting ownership rights (Nabawanda, 2024). Only the legal processes specified in the Act may be followed for leasing or transferring Mailo land. According to Section 3(4) of the Land Act, all transfers must be formalised through the appropriate legal procedures to avoid disputes, and Mailo land must be registered to guarantee its legality (Isaac, 2023). Mailo tenure has its own set of difficulties, especially when it comes to the intricacies of land transfers and the history of land ownership under this tenure type, in contrast to freehold land, which gives comparable but typically simpler ownership rights (Musinguzi et al., 2021).

Nigeria’s Legal Structure for Land Sales

            Land transactions in Nigeria are governed by both statutes and customary law. The most significant of them are the Land Use Act of 1978, the Federal Republic of Nigeria Constitution, and several state-level laws.
The Land Use Act, which grants state governors ownership of all the country’s land in trust for the people, is a significant component of Nigerian law. This Act significantly alters the traditional land ownership arrangement, which was formerly governed by customary law. Because the Land Use Act grants the governor the power to grant land use rights to people and groups, the government is heavily involved in land transactions (Derri & Egemonu, 2022). However, the Act’s centralisation of land rights and the abuse of this power by state governors have come under heavy fire (Makata & Udobi, 2024). The state governor’s concentration of authority has led to issues with corruption and abuse, despite the Act’s efforts to prevent land hoarding and guarantee fair distribution.
In addition to the Land Use Act, Nigeria’s customary land laws continue to play a significant role in land transactions, particularly in rural areas. Regional norms and traditions serve as the foundation for these rules, which regulate property ownership, inheritance, and transfer among communities. Despite the fact that customary law often provides a more flexible and localised approach to land transactions (Chigbu et al., 2021), its absence of formal documentation can lead to disputes and challenges when formalising property transactions. When statutory law and customary law coexist, it is challenging to guarantee uniform enforcement, particularly when disputes arise between parties that adhere to different legal systems (Nwocha, 2016).
In addition to the Land Use Act, two more laws that affect land transactions in Nigeria are the Property and Conveyancing Act and the Nigerian Land Title Registration Act (Abraham, 2023). In order to ensure that ownership is properly documented and recognised by the state, these laws, along with a number of state laws, establish procedures for registering property titles. However, these rules are administered unevenly due to problems including corrupt land administration agencies and inefficient land registration processes.

Contemporary Land Deal Processes

To ensure legal compliance and safeguard the rights of both buyers and sellers, modern real estate transactions must strictly conform to a range of national laws, rules, and due diligence procedures (Dieterle, 2023). The complexity of these transactions, which can include numerous verification procedures and discussions, increases in tandem with the value of land. The main stages of contemporary land deals are broken down as follows:

Searching the land registration is one of the most crucial procedures in the transaction process. According to the Trusted Advisors, the search is conducted at the land registry office and verifies the property’s ownership history, ensuring that the seller is the legitimate owner and that there are no disputes or claims from third parties. The search also turned up encumbrances like mortgages, liens, or unpaid taxes that could legally tie the land and limit its transferability. Completing this critical step is necessary to establish a clean title, which is a title free of any legal barriers to ownership.
Verifying that the corporation is legally registered and has the authority to sell the property is essential if the landowner is a corporation. For example, in Nigeria, this process comprises a search with the Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) to confirm that the corporate entity is in good standing, has not been dissolved, and that its representatives are legally allowed to act on its behalf in the transaction (Corporate Affairs Commission, 2022). According to the Commission, this step lessens fraud and illegal activities by ensuring that the transaction is conducted with a reputable, legally authorised business. It is typically advised to involve legal experts in these verifications to avoid problems. In other countries, comparable investigations are carried out with the relevant authorities.
Hiring a skilled surveyor to confirm the exact boundaries of the property is necessary for a thorough understanding of the land being transferred (Reed, 2021). Surveyors conduct field assessments to ensure that land measurements match official records and to mark and confirm boundary lines in compliance with government-approved survey plans. According to Çağdaş et al. (2023), inaccurate border demarcation may lead to disputes with neighbouring property owners and, in some cases, legal action. By preventing further encroachments, boundary verification also enables the purchase to legally and physically defend the land.
In certain places, particularly those with significant community or customary land rights, it is frequently required to consult local stakeholders, such as surrounding landowners, community leaders, or traditional authorities (Notes et al., 2021). For instance, in many rural African areas, the consent of a village chief or other community leader increases the agreement’s legitimacy and helps prevent future disputes with the local populace (Ndi, 2022). This consultation may involve formal discussions, agreements, or, in some cases, getting express written authorisation to proceed with the sale. This stage is especially crucial in transactions involving land that was formerly governed by customary law since such land may have unwritten obligations or access rights.
Legal counsel is highly recommended to manage the intricacy of land regulations and protect the buyer’s rights. Attorneys can assist in confirming that the deal paperwork is examined, the title is genuine, and all procedural requirements are met (Stark & Llorente, 2024). Certain transactions, especially those involving valuable assets, may also require financial appraisals. Financial due diligence helps ensure that the acquisition price is fair and that there are no hidden financial obligations, such as unpaid property taxes or outstanding loans associated with the property.
Fulfilling specific regulatory criteria, which may vary depending on the locality, is a common prerequisite for modern land purchases. These include acquiring government clearances, adhering to zoning laws, and gaining environmental approvals if the land will be utilised for commercial development (Dixon, 2021). In certain jurisdictions, paying taxes or stamp fees is necessary for a transaction to be performed legally. The likelihood of fines, penalties, or other legal problems with regulatory authorities is decreased by adhering to these rules.When combined, these processes reduce the possibility of fraudulent property transactions, shield buyers from potential issues, and offer a straightforward and safe route to ownership. Legal and real estate experts should be consulted by investors, particularly if they are unfamiliar with local regulations or are new to a certain market.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The legal systems of Uganda and Nigeria both offer fundamental frameworks for land transactions, but substantial changes are needed to improve their efficacy, guarantee fair land allocation, and encourage sustainable land management. By addressing the differences in land registration, bolstering enforcement strategies, and boosting transparency, both nations’ land laws will be in line with global best practices. Both people and investors will benefit from a more stable and secure land tenure environment as a result.
In order to verify the validity of property boundaries during land transfers, Ugandan law requires boundary neighbours to sign documents and provide information from their national identity cards. Boundary disputes are prevented and unambiguous borders are established thanks to this need. Nigeria ought to implement a similar law requiring boundary neighbour verification before buying real land.
In order to ensure balanced family rights and forbid unilateral actions that would endanger the family’s financial stability, Uganda’s legal system contains a clause demanding spousal approval when a husband is the vendor in a land transaction. Nigerian lawmakers ought to think about enacting a comparable law. Family assets would be safeguarded by requiring spousal consent for real estate transactions involving married people.
Nigeria lags behind other nations that regularly modify their legal frameworks to satisfy modern demands because its land laws, especially the Land Use Act of 1978, have essentially remained untouched since their creation. It is recommended that Nigerian lawmakers give careful review and revision of these laws top priority in order to establish a more effective and investor-friendly legal environment for real estate transactions.
While Nigeria’s land is controlled by the government under the Land Use Act, which occasionally disadvantages locals, Uganda’s Constitution grants its residents the right to own land. In addition to bringing Nigeria into line with Uganda’s strategy, a constitutional amendment granting Nigerians direct land ownership rights will boost individuals’ sense of accountability and lessen bureaucratic inefficiencies in land administration.
Uganda’s RTA keeps prospective buyers from inadvertently acquiring contested land by enabling parties with reservations about a real estate transaction to record a caveat with the land registry and inform the public of any continuing conflicts. It is advised that Nigeria implement a comparable caveat procedure, which would make it simple for buyers to obtain this information before closing a deal and for interested parties to issue caveats.

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Citation

Okeke, N. C., Ohachenu, I. E., & Ojiochie, J. A. (2026). Socio-Cultural Determinants of Drug and Substance Use among Pregnant Women in Nigeria: A Literature Review. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(2), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/7

¹Ngozi Chinenye Okeke, ¹Ifeoma Elizabeth Ohachenu, ²Joshua Akaolisa Ojiochie,

 cng.okeke@unizik.edu.ng;  ie.ohachenu@unizik.edu;  jakaolisa8@gmail.com

¹ Department of Sociology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State.

²Department of Sociology, Caritas University, Amorji Nike Enugu State

Corresponding author: ¹Ngozi Chinenye Okeke, Department of Sociology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra, Nigeria. Email: cng.okeke@unizik.edu.ng. ORCID number: 0000-0001-6636-5166

Abstract

The increasing prevalence of drug and substance use among pregnant women poses significant risks to maternal and fetal health, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. Drawing on the body of existing research, including publications and articles, this theoretical paper attempts to investigate the determinants of drug and substance use among pregnant women in Nigeria. The Social Learning Theory (SLT) is adopted as the theoretical framework. This paper identifies important factors that affect drug and substance use among pregnant women in Nigeria. Through a thorough analysis of secondary data. These factors include maternal age, partner/husband and maternal education level, monthly income, occupation, partner/husband’s substance use, healthcare access, maternall age, socioeconomic status, lack of awareness, societal stigma, place of residence, stress, and cultural beliefs.  The study also addresses the effects of drug and substance use on pregnancy outcomes and emphasizes the necessity of focused treatments and legislative changes. To reduce drug and substance use among pregnant women, this paper advocates that the government and non-governmental organizations should consider subsidizing the cost of antenatal medications, community engagement, enhancing public health initiatives, and educational programs aimed at reducing drug use and improving maternal and child health outcomes.

Keywords: Drug use, Maternal health, Nigeria, Pregnant women, Substance use,

Introduction

A drug is any substance, typically of a chemical type, that alters or changes the user’s physiological or psychological state. Both medical and non-medical justifications are given for drug use. However, the time, method, and purpose of drug use can all have an impact on the user, both positively and negatively. Drug use, abuse, and misuse are all possible  (Olofintuyi et al, 2019). According to Mohammed et al. (2025), substance use is the use of harmful stimulants, such as alcohol, tobacco products, caffeine, khat leaves, illegal drugs, inhalants, and other substances that can be ingested, inhaled, injected, or absorbed into the body. These substances can cause dependence and have negative effects on physiological, mental, physical, or emotional functions. Pregnancy and unborn infants are affected since a sizable part of the females who engage in this behavior are of reproductive age. These substances may be self-prescriptions, medications provided by doctors or pharmacists, or behaviors inherited from their mothers or other family members (Atiba et al, 2023).

Pregnant women, like their non-pregnant counterparts, seem to abuse a variety of drugs and substances. Commonly used over-the-counter medications, as well as substances like caffeine, alcohol, cigarettes, stimulants, sedatives, and several other illegal substances, can have long-lasting effects on an unborn child. These substances are as harmful to fetal development as illegal drugs like marijuana, cocaine, and methamphetamine (Sulyman et al., 2021). Pregnant women may use these substances for a variety of reasons, such as easing symptoms that are more prevalent in the first trimester, controlling nausea and vomiting, improving the quality and volume of their blood, helping their babies sleep better, lowering pain, and improving the babies’ weight, among other reasons (Atiba et al 2023, Sulyman, et al, 2021).

Child mortality, perinatal morbidities, and congenital abnormalities are associated with substance use during pregnancy, and these risks are exacerbated by inadequate prenatal care (Lee et al., 2023). For example, if pregnant women consume crystal meth or marijuana, the fetus will also be impacted. Additionally, the woman is endangering not only her own life but also the health of the unborn child if she is addicted to cocaine, also referred to as coke, snow, or blow. Seizures, heart attacks, strokes, and respiratory failure are all potential consequences of cocaine usage. It has been determined that the main way pregnant women are exposed to unintentional caffeine intake is through the careless consumption of all meals and beverages. For instance, they may be exposed to accidental caffeine consumption if they consume kola nuts and certain so-called cola drinks (Lee et al., 2023).

One of the major risk factors for global health, according to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2018), is hazardous alcohol consumption and substance use. These behaviors directly affect several SDGs’ health-related targets, such as maternal and child health, infectious diseases (HIV, viral hepatitis, and tuberculosis), and non-communicable diseases like mental health, injuries, and poisonings. WHO (2018). According to a 2018 World Health Organization report, approximately three million people died in 2016 as a result of alcohol and other substance abuse. They also showed that alcohol use caused 26.1 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and 0.7 million deaths among women. Mortalities from alcohol (including drug and other substances) were higher than those from HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and tuberculosis. WHO (2018) in 2025, Pregnancy-related substance use varies from 2.2% to 36.5% in Sub-Saharan Africa (15–17) and from 11.3% to 60% in East African nations, such as Ethiopia (18–23). 1.53 percent of people reported regularly using alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana, 0.51% exclusively using marihuana, and 0.51% only using crack (Olofintuyi, 2019).

In Nigeria, 18.28% of expectant mothers reported abusing drugs, including alcohol, cigarettes, and illegal substances like cocaine and marijuana. Additionally, 44–65% of prescription drugs were considered dangerous during pregnancy, which can lead to fetal complications like low birth weight and stillbirth (Onah et al., 2023, Kassada et al., 2013). Codeine and tramadol were the most misused substances, according to a study conducted in northern Nigeria that reported a 9.3% prevalence of psychoactive substance use disorders among females (Ibrahim et al., 2018). Pregnancy-related substance use is greatly influenced by many sociocultural factors, such as maternal age, income, education, and access to healthcare. Studies show that women who are unintended mothers and those who lack access to healthcare are more likely to take drugs, and that younger mothers, especially those under 20, are linked to higher rates of substance use (Tabatabaei et al., 2018). A key factor is educational attainment; higher education frequently results in improved health-seeking behaviors, while lower education levels are associated with increasing substance use (Horan et al., 2024). Higher rates of substance use are also associated with financial restrictions, such as an annual income below $20,000 (Horan et al., 2024). The domicile is also important, as rural women have a harder time getting support and medical care (Tabatabaei et al., 2018). Additionally, cultural views and interactions with intimate partners can either reduce or increase substance use, underscoring the intricate interaction of socio-cultural factors in this situation (Berra et al., 2019).

In Nigeria, interventions like the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) which was created under the World Health Organization’s (WHO) umbrella and is culturally neutral, is available to screen for the use of the following substances: alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, tobacco products, amphetamine-type stimulants, sedatives and sleeping pills (benzodiazepines), hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, marijuana, and “other drugs.” Despite these initiatives, substance use is on the rise among Nigerian women, and it has been a serious health concern during pregnancy.  Health care practitioners are reportedly not regularly screening pregnant women for drug and substance use, despite this concerning reality. Although the antenatal clinic offers frequent screenings for certain physical disorders (such as diabetes and anemia), health care practitioners are hesitant to screen for drugs (Adebowale et al., 2018). The dearth of research on drug and substance use among pregnant women is problematic since it makes it more difficult to develop effective policies and treatments. It is crucial to perform this research in particular settings and locales since country-specific differences in drug and substance trends may dictate the kind of laws and services required locally. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge and search, there aren’t many previous studies that have tried to identify the different factors that influence drug and substance use among pregnant women in Nigeria. To fill this research gap, the purpose of this study is to identify the socio-cultural determinants of drug and substance use among pregnant women in Nigeria.

     Review of Relevant Literature/Conceptualization of Key Terms

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is a dynamic process in which anatomic and physiological changes occur from fertilization to parturition (Suleyman et al., 2022). Pregnancy is a delicate time, and any mistakes made during this time could have short-term or long-term negative effects on both the mother and the unborn child. Since the majority of drugs cross the placental and hematoencephalic barriers without any prior metabolization, drug use complications are not limited to pregnant women; they also affect the fetus. These substances specifically affect the fetus’s central nervous system, resulting in cognitive deficits, deformities, abstinence syndromes, and other problems in the newborn (Olofintuyi, 2019).

Drug use

Pregnancy-related drug use includes both legal and illicit substance use, which can have a serious negative effect on the health of the mother and fetus. According to Confino and Gleicher (1985), it is the administration of any chemical substance that has the potential to have negative effects, regardless of whether it is utilized for therapeutic objectives. To protect the safety of both the mother and the fetus, pregnant women frequently need to take medications for a variety of medical issues, which calls for careful evaluation of the USFDA drug risk categories (Geetha et al., 2024).

Substance Use

The complex biopsychosocial phenomena of substance use have been characterized in a variety of ways throughout history and across academic fields. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2010) defines substance use as the use of psychoactive substances, such as alcohol, tobacco, illegal drugs, and prescription pharmaceuticals, in a way that can result in dependence, negative societal effects, or health issues. Strong cravings, less control over use, physiological withdrawal symptoms, tolerance building, disregard for other pleasures, and continued use in the face of harm are all signs of substance use. Alcohol, opioids, stimulants, and cannabis are examples of chemicals that can cause substance use disorders (SUDs) when consumed compulsively despite negative consequences. Substance use during pregnancy is a serious health concern that includes the use of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and other illegal drugs, and can have negative effects on the health of both the mother and the fetus. The prevalence of SUDs among women of reproductive age is alarming, with high rates of alcohol and drug use, especially among those between the ages of 18 and 29 (Prince & Ayers, 2023). The most commonly used substance during pregnancy is tobacco, followed by alcohol and cannabis, and polysubstance use is common (Forray, 2016; Prince & Ayers, 2019).

Drug and Substance Use among Pregnant Women

There are serious public health issues associated with drug and substance use among pregnant women; numerous studies have shown how common these behaviors are and the negative effects they can have. Substance abuse and drug use during pregnancy are complicated issues that have a big impact on the health of the mother and the fetus. Substance abuse during pregnancy is an increasing global concern, while prevalence varies by region and population. According to Forray (2016), tobacco is the most commonly used substance, followed by alcohol, cannabis, and other illegal substances. In the United States, more than 4.4% of pregnant women report abusing one or more substances. The prevalence of substance use disorders (SUDs) is particularly high among women of reproductive age, and the risks are higher during pregnancy, especially for those who use alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis (Prince  & Ayers, 2023).

The National Survey on Drug Use and Health indicates that while pregnant women exhibit lower rates of illicit drug use compared to non-pregnant women, polysubstance use remains a concern, with nearly one-fifth of substance-using pregnant women engaging in multiple substance use (Board et al., 2023). The co-use of tobacco and other drugs exacerbates health risks for both mother and fetus, necessitating comprehensive screening and integrated treatment approaches that address both substance use and mental health (Board et al., 2023). Barriers to treatment, including socioeconomic factors and stigma, hinder access to necessary care, underscoring the need for tailored interventions to support this vulnerable population (Prince & Ayers, 2023). Multiple substance use during pregnancy is a typical occurrence that frequently co-occurs with environmental stresses and psychological disorders. This may exacerbate adverse effects and make maternal and fetal health more difficult (Forray, 2016).

Theoretical framework

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Social Learning Theory (SLT), developed by Albert Bandura, posits that social environments teach people habits through imitation, reinforcement, and observation. Pregnant women’s drug and substance usage can be explained by this hypothesis since social models, including peers, family, and the media, frequently shape their behavior. For example, if a pregnant woman has been exposed to a culture that normalizes substance use, such as witnessing her parents, boyfriends, or friends take drugs, she may emulate similar behaviors because she believes they are acceptable or even helpful for relieving stress. Furthermore, she might continue using drugs despite the risks if doing so is rewarded by social approval or momentary emotional comfort. On the other hand, substance use may be further reinforced if there are no obvious negative repercussions (such as not seeing others experience unfavorable pregnancy outcomes). Glamorized depictions of drug or alcohol use in the media can potentially influence public opinion by downplaying its negative effects during pregnancy. Additionally, addiction might persist in the absence of significant social support or positive role models due to low self-efficacy, which is a lack of confidence in one’s capacity to stop. Although SLT places a lot of emphasis on social and environmental factors, it frequently ignores the biological and psychological aspects of substance use. Hormonal changes, genetic susceptibilities to addiction, and mental health issues (such as anxiety or depression) can all contribute significantly to drug dependence in pregnant women, and SLT does not adequately account for these aspects.

Socio-cultural determinants of drug and substance use among pregnant women

Partner/husband’s substance use

Partner/husband’s substance use is one of the major determinants of drug and substance use among pregnant women, according to a study (Voutilainen et al., 2022). Substance abuse by a partner is a strong predictor of increased maternal alcohol use during pregnancy. A study found that reduced prenatal alcohol intake among pregnant women is associated with higher partner influence, including substance use and relationship satisfaction (Voutilainen et al., 2022; Mburu et al., 2020). Intimate relationships have a big impact on pregnant women’s drug use and frequently mediate their choices. Due to the complicated dynamics involved, some women started using drugs to achieve perceived relationship standards, while others experienced conflict when their spouses objected to their drug use (Mburu et al., 2020). Substance abuse by a father is thought to be a predictor of continued substance use issues for his partner and kids because it can make it more difficult for the mother to stop using drugs and compromise her ability to provide emotional and physical support throughout pregnancy and the first few years of motherhood (Voutilainen et al., 2022; Mburu et al., 2020).

Maternal age

The age of the mother has a substantial impact on pregnant women’s substance usage, with different age groups showing varied patterns. Younger and older women had considerably different predictors of alcohol use during pregnancy, which reflects different social and contextual factors. Research shows that younger pregnant women, especially those under 25, are more likely to drink alcohol in a risky manner and are more likely to have risk factors such as mental health disorders and unemployment (Genna et al., 2017). Once more, younger pregnant women, especially those between the ages of 20 and 25, had greater rates of risk factors such as being single, giving birth for the first time, smoking, and having depressive symptoms. These factors are also associated with higher alcohol use (Genna et al., 2017). According to Meschke et al. (2013) & Genna et al. (2017), adolescent and young adult mothers are more susceptible to dangerous drinking behaviors due to peer alcohol use and coping reasons, which are diminished in older mothers. Both age groups require focused efforts to reduce prenatal alcohol exposure because older mothers’ alcohol consumption is less predictable than that of younger mothers, who confront numerous recognized risk factors (Meschke et al. 2013).

Socioeconomic Status

Several studies have shown that pregnant women’s substance usage is highly influenced by their monthly income, indicating the socioeconomic factors at work. Those who are unemployed or underemployed are more likely to use drugs like crack and cocaine, and pregnant women with lower incomes frequently experience more pressures as a result (Almeida et al., 2021). Higher education and early prenatal care are two positive demographic and behavioral traits that are typically seen in employed women and are linked to decreased rates of substance use during pregnancy. According to Miller et al. (2023), women without jobs, on the other hand, frequently have worse health outcomes and more financial hardship, which raises their rates of substance use. The socioeconomic context has a significant impact on substance use behaviors, as evidenced by a study that found women with opioid use disorder (OUD) in rural areas, who frequently face financial difficulties, exhibited different substance use patterns from their urban counterparts (Miller et al., 2023).

According to Kuo et al. (2017), substance use was also identified by women who are in poverty as a widespread problem that was frequently connected to their social settings and unstable financial situations.  The financial strain of substance abuse exacerbates the cycle of poverty and addiction by leading to worse newborn outcomes and increased maternal hospital costs. Therefore, lowering pregnant women’s substance use and enhancing maternal and newborn health outcomes depend heavily on addressing income disparities (Kuo et al., 2017). Another study found that women with lower levels of education used kola nuts far more frequently. Compared to women with higher levels of education, the higher rates among those with less education may be the result of their inadequate understanding of foods that are safe to eat during pregnancy. It might also be a reflection of the low socioeconomic standing of less educated women who would not have the money to visit PHCs and TBA clinics for treatment of symptoms like nausea and vomiting, which would lead to a greater use of kolanut in these facilities (Atiba et al., 2023).

Place of residence

Substance use among pregnant women is strongly influenced by where they live, with major differences between rural and urban populations. Pregnant women in rural areas are 8.4 times more likely to report illicit opiate use than their urban counterparts, and studies show that they also have higher rates of injectable drug use, illicit opiate use, and polysubstance use (Shannon et al., 2010). According to Jumah (2016), rural women frequently encounter particular difficulties, like restricted access to healthcare and treatment programs, which might worsen substance use disorders. In contrast, pregnant women in metropolitan areas are more likely to perceive that their prenatal care is insufficient (Miller et al., 2023). Living in a rural or regional area is linked to increased alcohol use during pregnancy because these women are less likely to have access to specialized obstetric hospitals and treatment programs, which affects their general health and involvement in prenatal care. (Burns et al., 2011)
Lack of awareness

Drug and substance usage during pregnancy is greatly influenced by a lack of knowledge, which can have negative health effects on both the mothers and the fetuses. Evidence shows that most pregnant women are unaware of how drugs and other substances affect the health of the fetus; for example, in one study, nearly 91% of participants were unaware of the effects of drugs on the fetus (Banzal et al., 2017). Additionally, 59.2% of pregnant women are not aware of the possible health concerns associated with endocrine-disrupting substances (Okman & Yalçın, 2024). The problem is made worse by the stigma and fear of legal consequences that prevent substance-using women from getting the help they need (Stone, 2015). To mitigate these risks and promote safer behaviors among expectant mothers, it is essential to raise awareness through targeted public health campaigns.

Stress

Stress is one of the major factors in substance use among pregnant women, emphasizing the link between substance use and psychological discomfort. High levels of stress during pregnancy are linked to higher odds of antenatal substance use, such as alcohol and tobacco, especially for mothers who were born in the United States as opposed to those who were born abroad (Surkan, 2022). Serious psychological distress (SPD) has also been associated with increased substance use frequency and quantity; pregnant women with SPD report substantially more days of alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco use (David et al., 2023). Stressors before and after childbirth might worsen drug use problems, as evidenced by the fact that negative childhood experiences and recent stressful life events have been demonstrated to increase postpartum substance use rates (Stewart et al., 2023). Stress and drug use may interact in a complex way during the perinatal period, as longitudinal studies show that although stress may decline throughout pregnancy, it frequently resurfaces after delivery, correlating with an increase in substance use (Wu et al., 2021). Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing stress may be essential in reducing pregnant women’s risks of substance use.

Limited access to health care/Societal Stigma      

Social stigma has a significant influence on pregnant women’s substance use since it makes treatment difficult and makes them feel alone and unworthy. Self-efficacy and the conviction that these women should receive care are undermined by stigmatization, which frequently results in the idea that addiction is a moral failing rather than a medical condition (Shank et al., 2024). According to Wolfson et al. (2021), societal stigma affects substance use among pregnant women by erecting obstacles at the individual, interpersonal, institutional, and population levels. These obstacles lead to feelings of fear, shame, guilt, and mistrust of services, as well as the perpetuation of negative stereotypes and high organizational expectations. These factors ultimately make it difficult for pregnant women to receive the necessary treatment support and cause underreporting of substance misuse. As a result, many pregnant women who struggle with substance use disorders might delay getting treatment, which could worsen their diseases and put them and their unborn children at greater risk (Stephenson et al., 2024).

Substance-using mothers are stigmatized by cultural attitudes that frequently blame them for birth abnormalities while ignoring paternal involvement. This prejudice affects how these women are supported and how treatment is perceived in society, which feeds into unfavorable stereotypes (Babcock, 2008). The problem is further exacerbated by the stigma attached to substance use during pregnancy, which frequently causes women to withdraw and put off getting the help they need.  (Stone, 2015). Pregnancy interventions against alcohol use are made more difficult by cultural beliefs that strongly influence substance use among pregnant women by ingraining alcohol consumption into daily routines, encouraging the idea that homemade alcohol is harmless, and creating drinking-supporting social norms (Pati et al., 2018).

Adverse effects of drug and substance use

Drug and substance use during pregnancy has serious and complex negative impacts on the health of the mother and the fetus. Preterm birth, low birth weight, and neonatal abstinence syndrome are among the serious consequences that can result from substance use disorders (SUDs), which are common during pregnancy. Significant rates of alcohol, nicotine, and opiate use have been documented (El-Nahas & Thibaut, 2023). Pregnancy-related physiological changes may change how drugs are metabolized, raising the chance of developing life-threatening disorders such maternal dysrhythmias and placental abruption for both the mother and the fetus (Barry et al., 2021). Additionally, the increase in pregnancy-associated deaths linked to drug use highlights the pressing need for efficient screening and intervention methods (El-Nahas & Thibaut, 2023).  Neurocognitive and behavioral problems are among the long-term effects of substance exposure in utero for infants, which calls for a multidisciplinary approach to care that takes into account both substance use and mental health approach to care that takes into account both substance use and mental health approach to care that takes into account both substance use and mental health (El-Nahas & Thibaut, 2023;Barry et al., 2021).

Measures towards reducing drug and substance use among pregnant women

A multidimensional strategy including screening, behavioral interventions, and specialized treatment choices is used to prevent drug and substance use among pregnant women. Various guidelines promote screening and counseling as crucial techniques to detect and treat substance use in pregnant women. They emphasize the importance of integrated care approaches to address mental health and substance use disorders (Prince & Ayers, 2023).  In addition to providing brief therapies, such as motivational interviewing and cognitive behavioral therapy, to address alcohol and drug dependence, healthcare practitioners are urged to regularly screen for substance use during prenatal visits using approved tools (Ordean et al., 2017). Research indicates that behavior modification strategies including social support and action planning, can successfully lower alcohol intake during pregnancy (Fergie et al., 2019). Moreover, opioid-dependent pregnant women should be treated with opioid agonists such as buprenorphine or methadone, and tobacco users should be provided with smoking cessation therapies and psychosocial support (Ordean et al., 2017).

 Discussion of key issues

The problem of substance use in pregnant women is complex and influenced by several interconnected factors. Women with less education are frequently unaware of the serious risks drugs pose to fetal development, such as birth abnormalities and developmental delays and their degree of education is important. A general lack of knowledge or information exacerbates this issue; many pregnant women wrongly think that occasional drug or alcohol use is harmless, while others are ignorant of the available support options. Additional obstacles are brought about by societal stigma, as women are deterred from seeking help and continue to use drugs due to fear of criticism from medical professionals or legal consequences like losing custody of their children.

Geographical location also plays an important role because a woman’s residence may either increase her exposure to drugs or restrict her access to treatment; for instance, urban regions may have greater drug availability, but rural areas typically lack specialized rehabilitation centers. Limited access to healthcare exacerbates the issue, as many expecting moms miss out on crucial opportunities for early intervention due to financial constraints, transportation issues, or just a lack of addiction treatment programs that are customized to meet their specific needs.  Economic issues such as low income and unemployment can cause more stress, which can subsequently trigger drug usage as a coping mechanism. However, even women who work in low-paying, high-stress jobs may turn to drugs as a coping strategy.  Pregnancy-related substance use is a chronic public health concern that calls for all-encompassing, multidimensional solutions that close the knowledge gap, lessen stigma, increase access to healthcare, offer financial assistance, and include partners in the healing process.  Drug use by a spouse or partner may be one of the most significant variables as it can normalize substance use in the family and put pressure on others to continue engaging in addictive behaviors.  Women who have substance-using partners frequently have more difficulty quitting, particularly if their partners don’t support their efforts to stay sober.  If these problems are not addressed, there may be detrimental effects on the mother’s and the child’s health as well as their future well being

Conclusion

Drug and substance use among pregnant women in Nigeria is a multifaceted issue influenced by sociocultural, economic, and systemic factors, requiring a coordinated response from government agencies, healthcare providers, community leaders, NGOs, families, and the media. Effective strategies must include stigma reduction through community education, poverty alleviation via economic empowerment, culturally sensitive health interventions, improved antenatal care with substance abuse screening, and stronger policies regulating harmful substances while protecting vulnerable women. Sustainable progress hinges on collaborative efforts, adequate funding, and tailored programs that respect local traditions, with a recommended national task force ensuring unified action and long-term impact on maternal and child health outcomes.

Recommendation

Based on the paper the following recommendations were made

• The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) ought to regulate the dangerous drugs and herbal concoctions sold to expectant mothers.
• Policies (such as subsidized cost of antenatal care) which protect expectant mothers from substance-related damage should be promoted by the Ministry of Women Affairs & Social Development.
• Medical professionals should educate pregnant women about the dangers of substance use and screen them for substance use. Some women overcome these challenges by building resilience through positive self-identities and support systems, underscoring the need for trauma-informed care approaches that prioritize compassion and empathy.
• Mental health specialists ought to provide pregnant women who use substances with addiction treatment, counseling, and psychosocial support.
• Traditional authorities, religious leaders, and faith-based organizations ought to speak out against harmful cultural behaviors (such using kola nuts during pregnancy) and stigmatization. They can also encourage assistance for women who are affected.
• Door-to-door awareness campaigns should be carried out by Community Health Workers (CHWs) to provide pregnant women with sufficient information regarding the negative consequences of drug and substance use.
• Husbands and other family members should refrain from encouraging substance abuse and provide emotional support to expectant mothers.
• Future healthcare professionals should receive training on managing maternal addiction from medical and nursing schools.

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Citation

Ezeme, P. E., & Ohabuenyi, J. (2026). The Comparative Assessment of Nigerian and Ugandan Gender Policies. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 196–208. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/14

¹Ezeme, Paulinus Ejiofor

Department of Political Science,

Faculty of the Social Sciences,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: paulinus.ezeme@unn.edu.ng

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3638-7360

^2**Jonas Ohabuenyi**

Department of Political Science, Faculty of the Social Sciences,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Email: jonas.ohabuenyi@unn.edu.ng

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3614-7864

Corresponding author***

Abstract
Since women’s rights and participation are impacted by historical, societal, legal, and institutional issues, gender equality is a significant issue in both Nigeria and Uganda. The changes in gender policy in Nigeria and Uganda are examined in this essay. Comparing the efficacy of gender laws in the two nations, identifying obstacles to their full implementation, and making policy recommendations for enhancing gender parity were the goals. The study uses a doctrinal research strategy, which includes a thorough examination of international frameworks, state policies, and legal documents pertaining to gender equality in Nigeria and Uganda. The results demonstrate how the legal systems in Uganda and Nigeria have significantly improved gender equality. However, it will be challenging to successfully apply these laws due to social opposition, a lack of finance, insufficient institutional ability, and unpredictable political will. The study comes to the conclusion that, despite advancements, legislation pertaining to gender equality can occasionally be challenging to implement due to societal biases, a lack of political will, and a lack of funding. The study suggests, among other things, improving the competence of institutions in charge of carrying out gender policy and fortifying institutional frameworks.

Keywords: Comparative Assessment, Gender Policies, Institutional Structures, Legal Frameworks, Socio-Cultural

Introduction

            In many facets of society, such as economic empowerment, educational access, and violence prevention, gender policies are essential for creating equal opportunities and protections. Smith and Sinkford (2022) argue that promoting gender equality is not only a legal or economic necessity but also requires altering deeply rooted social norms, creating inclusive institutional structures, and changing policy frameworks in order to acknowledge and address the particular difficulties faced by women and gender minorities. Two African nations with distinct historical trajectories and complex social dynamics—Nigeria and Uganda—make compelling arguments for examining gender policy reform projects throughout the continent. This study aims to identify barriers and practical solutions for achieving gender equality by comparing and contrasting their approaches, offering knowledge pertinent not just to these two countries but also to the greater African context.Gender inequality is a major barrier to social progress in Uganda and Nigeria, impacting development, human rights, and overall societal well-being. Despite efforts to address these issues, cultural, economic, and political constraints have impeded the implementation and effectiveness of gender programs (Hervías Parejo & Radulović, 2023). Gender roles and actions in Uganda and Nigeria now are greatly influenced by past occurrences. For example, indigenous gender relations were changed and patriarchal norms were often reinforced by colonial laws and social institutions that privileged men’s access to formal employment, education, and leadership roles (Ajibade et al., 2020). The strengthening of regional and religious divisions brought forth by British colonial authority had distinct effects on gender roles in Nigeria’s North and South (Olonade et al., 2021). However, Uganda’s colonial experience under British rule resulted in unique social and economic policies that specifically changed the roles of men and women in politics and the economy (Sseremba, 2023). Women’s social standing, access to resources, and capacity for decision-making were all impacted by a number of firmly embedded gender norms, notwithstanding post-colonial efforts to bridge these gaps.Both Uganda and Nigeria have made strides toward enacting laws and policies that promote gender equality. For instance, according to UN Women (2021), Uganda’s Constitution recognises women’s rights and has several provisions, such as affirmative action programs to increase the representation of women in politics. Nigeria’s National Gender Policy (NGP) places a strong focus on women’s rights, political participation, and the eradication of gender-based violence (Okunade et al., 2023). However, the effectiveness of these tactics varies widely due to differences in political will, cultural resistance, and financial allocation. Nigerian implementation gaps are sometimes brought about by differences in how policies are carried out in various states, primarily because of the influence of customs and religion (Adenekan, 2022). Although Uganda is more progressive in certain ways, there are still problems with implementation, especially in rural areas where traditional ideas may clash with gender norms (UN Women, 2021). Gender legislation is still difficult to change, despite significant progress in both countries.

Frameworks and Initiatives for National Policy

Nigeria

The gender equality policies in Nigeria are the outcome of intricate relationships between regional differences, cultural norms, and legislative frameworks. Nigeria has passed important legislation to combat gender-based violence and advance gender equality, but the country’s diverse ethnic and religious terrain makes it difficult to completely achieve these objectives. Initiatives to advance gender parity include the following:
The historic Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (2015) seeks to end all forms of violence against women, including female genital mutilation, sexual harassment, and domestic abuse. The Act offers survivors legal protection and forbids harmful behaviours like forced marriage and spousal abuse. Nigeria, like Uganda, finds it difficult to put this law into effect, especially in areas where its goals clash with regional traditions and religious beliefs.
By encouraging female education, economic involvement, and protection against gender-based violence, Nigeria’s National Gender Policy aims to lessen gender inequities. Maternal mortality, gender-based violence, and the under-representation of women in government are some of the challenges that the strategy aims to address. Despite the policy’s broad goals, there are geographical differences in women’s access to healthcare, education, and employment prospects due to its uneven implementation. Gender initiatives encounter strong opposition in northern Nigeria, where traditional cultural and religious beliefs may restrict women’s rights (Olonade et al., 2021).

Uganda

Uganda has made great progress in passing legislation that protects women’s rights, prevents gender-based violence, and grants access to healthcare and education. The country’s national policy frameworks aim to promote gender parity and protect women’s rights, but there are still barriers to their effective execution and the achievement of measurable outcomes for women. The following is a list of the operational frameworks.

The Domestic Violence Act (2010) is a significant piece of legislation in Uganda that addresses financial, psychological, and physical abuse in homes (Ahimbisibwe, 2023). It provides victims of domestic abuse with legal protection in addition to safety measures like shelters and legal aid. However, enforcing the Act has been challenging due to a lack of funds, inadequate training for law enforcement officers, and persistent cultural ideas that normalise violence against women.
According to Mukasa et al. (2024), Uganda’s Gender Policy was developed to address gender inequities and promote gender equity in areas like education, health, employment, and political involvement. The policy encourages the creation of gender-sensitive programs and activities in order to empower women and give them equal opportunity. For instance, the policy emphasises the importance of women’s participation in leadership and decision-making processes, as well as their access to financial resources and healthcare.

The 1995 Ugandan Constitution, which gives equal rights to all persons, including special protections for women, enshrines gender equality. The Constitution mandates that men and women have equal opportunities in all spheres of life, including employment, education, and political participation. This legislative framework serves as the foundation for numerous gender-sensitive government programs and is crucial to the advancement of gender equality. The Constitution is reformist, but because of deeply ingrained sociocultural practices and viewpoints that still marginalise women, its implementation has proven challenging.

Frameworks for Law and Policy Encouraging Gender Equality

            One important piece of Nigerian legislation that supports equal rights and aims to stop discriminatory practices against women is the National Gender Policy (2006), which has been revised to the National Gender Policy 2021-2026. Aspects of women’s rights covered by this policy include their access to economic opportunities, healthcare, education, and decision-making (Ayamba et al., 2024). By prohibiting violent actions like female genital mutilation, domestic violence, and the destruction of widowhood customs, the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (2015) further promotes gender equity (The National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons [NAPTIP], 2022). However, poor enforcement procedures and uneven state-by-state implementation frequently undermine the efficacy of these legislation.A strong legal basis for gender equality in Uganda is provided by the 1995 Ugandan Constitution, which ensures equal rights for men and women in a number of areas of life, including employment, education, and political involvement (Ndagire, 2022). Another important piece of legislation that attempts to shield people from gender-based violence is the Domestic Violence Act (2010), which forbids domestic abuse and establishes victim support programs. Despite the progressive legislative framework, Bauer (2021) pointed out that societal beliefs that normalise gender inequity and violence against women, especially in rural regions, frequently impede the execution of these laws.

Opportunities for Economic Growth and Education

            In order to advance gender equality, economic growth and education are crucial. Economic opportunities guarantee that women can become financially independent and actively engage in society, while access to education allows them to raise their social and economic standing. The Ugandan Ministry of Education and Sports (2015) reports that female enrolment in basic and secondary schools has significantly improved and that there is gender parity in elementary education. Teenage pregnancy, child marriage, and cultural beliefs that value boys’ education over girls’ are barriers that prevent women from pursuing an education (UNICEF, 2015). Furthermore, many women still do not have access to higher education, particularly in rural areas. More focused efforts are required to reduce gender-specific educational barriers, even though programs like Universal Secondary Education (USE) and Universal Primary Education (UPE) have shown promise.Barriers like early marriage, poverty, and gender-based violence continue to prevent girls from attending school despite the Nigerian government’s efforts to improve girls’ education, especially through programs like the Girls’ Education Programme Phase 3 (GEP3) (Egberi & Madubueze, 2023). Additionally, women’s access to credit, financial resources, and land ownership is restricted, particularly in rural areas, which limits their economic potential (Udoh, 2024). Gender discrimination and a lack of support for work-life balance further hinder women’s involvement in the formal employment market.

Gender-Based Violence

            In both Nigeria and Uganda, gender-based violence (GBV) is a major obstacle to attaining gender equality. According to O’Mullan et al. (2024), gender inequality and power disparities are the main causes of GBV, which disproportionately affects women and girls. The goal of Uganda’s 2010 Domestic Violence Act is to shield women and children from emotional, sexual, and physical abuse (Amegbor & Pascoe, 2021). GBV is nevertheless common despite this legal framework, and survivors have little access to support services, especially in rural regions (Anguzu et al., 2022). Women find it challenging to pursue justice due to societal beliefs that favour violence against women as well as inadequate law enforcement and support networks.Among the most common types of gender-based violence in Nigeria include child marriage, female genital mutilation, and domestic abuse (United Nations, 2020). By giving victims legal protection and punishing criminals, the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (2015) aims to solve these problems. However, Mshelia (2021) noted that enduring obstacles to implementation include deeply ingrained patriarchal practices, a lack of public awareness, and inadequate legislative enforcement. Furthermore, because of cultural taboo, GBV is frequently underreported, and survivors frequently struggle to access mental and legal support.

Thinking About Uganda’s and Nigeria’s Gender Policy Reforms

            The challenging process of changing gender policy in Nigeria and Uganda must include the removal of long-standing institutional, legal, and societal barriers to gender equality. In addition to enacting new laws, this reform aims to create an atmosphere that promotes significant social, political, and economic change. Therefore, a comprehensive approach to reforming gender policy is required, considering the connections between legislative frameworks, societal norms, and women’s involvement in governance (Okunade et al., 2023; Vijeyarasa, 2021). This section looks at the legal and regulatory frameworks, women’s rights and participation, gender-based violence (GBV), access to economic and educational opportunities, and inclusive governance structures—all of which are essential to the reform process in both nations.

Structures of Inclusive Governance

            In order to achieve gender equality, inclusive governance is essential since it ensures that women’s opinions are heard during decision-making processes. According to the United Nations Development Programme, UNDP (2022), the Ugandan Equal Opportunities Commission works to ensure that men and women have equal access to opportunities and resources and has helped close gender inequalities in a variety of areas. However, women continue to be under-represented in the executive, judicial, and local branches of high-level government. To promote gender-inclusive governance, more work is needed to ensure that women have a meaningful voice in policy decisions and to increase the representation of women in important jobs.Affirmative action laws have considerably improved women’s political representation in Nigeria, although they are still under-represented in high-level positions, particularly in local government and traditional leadership roles. Gender-inclusive governance institutions must not only promote women’s participation but also provide an environment where women can reach their leadership potential without fear of discrimination or violence (World Health Organization, 2017).

Engagement in Women’s Rights and Governance

            Improving women’s rights and involvement in governance is a crucial part of changing gender policy. To guarantee that policies represent their needs and viewpoints, women must participate in decision-making processes at all levels. The Ugandan Constitution guarantees women a direct say in the legislative process by assigning them seats in the Ugandan Parliament (Muzee, 2023). Although the number of women in political office has increased since affirmative action was implemented, gender stereotypes and cultural norms still prevent women from assuming leadership positions (Chemutai & Mulyampiti, 2023). Lack of funding and strongly ingrained patriarchal ideas that support male leadership further limit women’s access to leadership roles in political parties and other public roles.Nigeria has seen notable advancements in the representation of women in politics, including female legislators, governors, and ministers. The Beijing Platform for Action and other international commitments have established a target for their representation, but it still falls short. Agbalajobi (2021) claims that institutional and cultural barriers that keep women from fully engaging in politics include intimidation, gender-based violence, and political parties’ preference for male candidates. The problem is made worse by the underfunding of women’s political campaigns. Quota systems and affirmative action, two policies that support gender equality in government, have not been successful in removing these obstacles (Adigun Yusuf, 2024).

The Global Legal Structure for Reforming Gender Policy

The global  legal frameworks are essential for promoting gender equality and directing nations to enact laws, regulations, and policies that protect women’s rights. These frameworks hold nations responsible for their pledges and create a global consensus on what gender equality and women’s empowerment entail. Uganda and Nigeria have accepted a number of international agreements aiming at advancing gender equality, but they differ in terms of compliance and how well they are carried out. The main international frameworks that guide the reform of gender policy are listed below.

            Often called the “international bill of rights for women,” the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is the cornerstone of international efforts to abolish gender discrimination (Gouri, 2021). Adopted by the UN in 1979, CEDAW requires member governments to take all necessary steps to end discrimination against women in all spheres of life, including public participation, work, education, and healthcare. Nigeria and Uganda have both signed CEDAW, pledging to respect its tenets. The degree to which these nations have integrated the provisions of CEDAW into their own legal frameworks differs, nevertheless. With the passage of the Equal Opportunities Commission Act (2007), which attempts to eliminate gender disparity in a number of areas, Uganda has achieved notable progress (Jackline, 2024). However, there are still difficulties in putting CEDAW’s tenets into reality. The effective implementation of CEDAW is nevertheless hampered by sociocultural norms and deeply ingrained gender prejudices, especially in rural areas where conventional gender roles predominate (Nalule, 2022). Although CEDAW’s goals are reflected in Nigeria’s National Gender Policy and other legislative frameworks, such the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (2015), gender discrimination is still widespread in both law and practice. The full implementation of CEDAW’s provisions is hampered, for example, by the non-ratification of the Violence Against Women Bill and the inconsistent application of gender-related laws among states.Twelve crucial areas of concern, including women’s health, education, economic empowerment, and political engagement, were identified in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, which was endorsed during the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 (Gondal et al., 2023). This proclamation highlights the necessity for nations to develop thorough and well-thought-out programs to tackle the difficulties women encounter in these domains. It also emphasises how crucial it is to create a social and legal climate that allows women to reach their full potential in all facets of life. Nigeria and Uganda have both committed to the Beijing Platform, but their execution of its objectives has been uneven. The government of Uganda has made some headway in expanding women’s access to healthcare and education. However, problems including high rates of maternal death, gender-based violence, and the lack of economic prospects for women in the unorganised sector continue to be major obstacles (Tetui et al., 2024).Nigeria’s gender-related policies, especially those aimed at increasing female political involvement, have been influenced by the Beijing Platform. One notable accomplishment is the employment of women to key administrative positions. However, cultural barriers, religious prohibitions, and deeply embedded patriarchal structures continue to limit women’s participation in politics and other decision-making processes (Alokwu, et al., 2024). Despite these challenges, programs like the National Policy on Women’s Empowerment aim to increase women’s responsibilities in the political and economic spheres.In order to solve global concerns and advance sustainable development by 2030, the United Nations established the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. Goal 5, which emphasises gender equality and women’s empowerment, calls for the eradication of all forms of violence, discrimination, and harmful practices against women and girls while ensuring their full participation in public, political, and economic life. As signatories to the SDGs, Uganda and Nigeria have pledged to accomplish Goal 5 as well as other associated objectives such expanding women’s access to economic, healthcare, and educational opportunities (Jackline, 2024; Egberi & Madubueze, 2023). In Uganda, women’s political representation and literacy rates have significantly improved. The government has also started programs to promote women’s economic development and reduce maternal mortality. However, problems such limited financial resources, gender-based violence, and inadequate access to reproductive healthcare persist (Mambo et al., 2023).Nigeria, on the other hand, has made some progress toward SDG 5, particularly in the areas of female education. However, the country has serious issues like economic inequality that disproportionately impacts women, especially in the northern regions, gender-based violence, and cultural practices such child marriage (United Nations, 2020). Nigeria has committed to several international frameworks, including the SDGs, however implementation is patchy and monitoring systems are often insufficient.

Conclusion

            The implementation, difficulties, and effects of international legal frameworks for gender reforms have been highlighted by this study’s analysis of the gender policy frameworks in Nigeria and Uganda. According to the study, both nations have made great progress in enacting gender policies that uphold women’s rights and advance equality, but they still have a long way to go before reaching complete gender parity. However, cultural resistance, a lack of funding, and insufficient institutional ability hinder the implementation of laws such as the Gender Policy and the Domestic Violence Act, as well as Uganda’s constitutional provisions of gender equality. Enforcing national gender laws such as the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act and the National Gender Policy is more difficult in Nigeria due to its ethnic, religious, and regional diversity. Although these laws seek to safeguard women from gender-based violence and advance their rights, their implementation varies by region, especially in places where cultural and religious traditions clash with the goals of gender equality.Stronger institutional backing, improved legal enforcement, and a cultural movement toward gender equality are all necessary for effective gender policy reform in both nations. To guarantee that women may fully utilise their rights and opportunities, there must also be consistent political will and sufficient resources for gender programs. Governments, the general public, and international partners must work together to foster an environment that supports women’s inclusion and empowerment in order to overcome these obstacles.

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Ajah, B. O. (2026). Cultural Syncretism and Crime: Exploring the Blending of Igbo             Practices and Modern Criminality in Uganda. Journal of Somali Studies (JOSS), 13(1), 1-         25.

Ajah, B. O., & Magadze, T. O. (2026). State Failure and the Rise of Organised Crime: A Case            Study of Governance Gaps in Nigeria. African Renaissance, 23(1), 123-144.

Ajah, B. O., & Magadze, T. O. (2026). Combating Transnational Crime: Evaluating the Role of      ECOWAS in West African Security Architecture. An-Najah University Journal for      Research – B Humanities, 40(2), 1-15.

Ajah, B. O., Onyejegbu, C. O., Isife, C. T., Enweonwu, O. A., Chinweze, C. C., Anyadike, N.   K., Ilo, K. O., Omaliko, J. C., Asadu, N., Ugwu, C. C. O., Okemini, O. O., Leweanya, K.        C., Ohabuenyi, J., Uzoigwe, O. U., Iloma, O., Madubuko, J. C., & Ngwu, G. E. (2026).           Narrative accounts, feelings, and perceptions of yahoo-plus offenders in Enugu and   Abakaliki correctional centers, Nigeria. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice,   84, 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2025.100823

Ajah, B.O., Akwaji, F. N., Ogenyi, F., Nwonovo O. S., Antai, G. O., Shigaba, D. G., Onyejegbu,     D. C., Chinweze, U. C., & Ngwu, G. E. (2025). An Evaluation of the Jurisprudential            Impact of the Administration of Criminal Justice Act 2015 on the Implementation of            Restorative Justice Practices in Enugu State, Nigeria. African Journal of Law and Justice    System (AJLJS), 4(2), 79-103.

Ajah, B. O., Obioha, E. E. Obioha, O. O., & Onyejegbu, D. C. (2025). The Cost of Insecurity:       How Terrorism Shapes Africa’s Economic Relations with Global Powers. Journal of      African Foreign Affairs (JoAFA), 12(2), 49-68.

Ajah, B. O., Morojele, R., Phokojoe, M., Thabane, S., Mundau, M., & Matele, M. J. (2025).            Strengthening Nation-Building in Nigeria Through Gender-Inclusive Health and Crime        Policies. Journal of Nation-building & Policy Studies (JoNPS), 9(2), 49-63.

Perbawa, K. S. L. P., Aidonojie, P. A., Ajah, B. O. (2025). Disability and electoral justice for        inclusive participation. Journal of Sustainable Development and Regulatory Issues, 3(2),          221-246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53955/jsderi.v3i2.93

Ajah, B. O., Akwaji, F. N.,  Ossai, A., Ajah, M. C., Uzoigwe, C. O., Damina, J. J., Ugwu, I. P.,     Nzewi, N. L., Chinweze, U. C. (2025). Potential strategies of using virtual and       augmented realities in Nigeria’s conflict resolution and interfaith dialogue. African        Journal of Religion, Philosophy and Culture (AJRPC), 6(2), 157-175. DOI:            https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-7644/2025/v6n2a9

Ajah, B.O., Okpa, J. T., Eneji, R. I., Morojele, R., Asomba, I. U.,  Nwonovo, O. S., Ajah, M. C.,    Igwe, O., & Nweke, I. O. (2025). Incorporating Igbo Dialects into the             Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Inmates in Nigeria’s Correctional Centres. Journal of        African Dialects and Literary Studies (JoALLS), 6(1), 5-12.  DOI             https://doi.org/10.31920/2633-2116/2025/v6n1a1

Ilo, K.O., Ekwok, I. C., U. T. O., Ajah, B. O., Uzoigwe, C. O., Omaliko, C. J., Ukam, P. I., &            Isife, T. C. (2025).  How a Digital Repository Platform Can Be Used In the   Administration of Awaiting Trial Issues in Uganda. Journal of Somali Studies (JoSS),            12(1), 171-186.  DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/2056-5682/2025/v12n1a8

Ajah, B. O., Obioha, E.E., Thaban, S., & Ogbuke, M. U. (2025). Exploring the Place of 4ir in   Preventing and Addressing Ethnoreligious Conflict in Nigeria. Parkistan Journal of        Criminology, 17(2), 61-75. https://doi.org/10.62271/pjc.172.61.75  

Onah, C. C., Chekwube, O. M., Okechukwu, E., Olorunfemi, G. C., Asogwa, ,M. O., Ejim, E. P.,      Ajah, B. O., Oluwasanmi, O. I. (2024).  Poverty and human capital development:          The role of politico-administrative factors in a failed/fragile state, Nigeria.           Journal of Somali Studies (JoSS), 11(3), 69-94.

Antai, G. O., Ajah, B. O., Onyejegbu, D. C., Nwonovo, O. S., Enweonwu, O. A., & Agwano, D.     E. (2024). An Examination of the African Response to International Crimes and      Extradition vis-à-vis Inter-Regional Cooperation. African Journal of Law and Justice          System (AJLJS), 3(2), 5-24.

Obasi C. O., Igbo, P., Onyenali, R., Enweonwu, O. A., Onyejegbu, D. C., Isife, C. T., Nwonovo,       O. S., & Ajah, B. O. (2024). Religion and Legitimization of Violence in Nigeria:       Towards Peace Education. African Journal of Religion, Philosophy and Culture            (AJRPC), 5(2), 133-150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-7644/2024/v5n2a8

Ajah, B. O., Ekwok, I. C., Akwaji, F. N., Onyejegbu, D. C., Nwonovo, O. S., Isife, C. T.,        Nwangwu, C. N., Agwanwo, D. E., & Umahi, O. T. (2024). Assessing the Role of the      African Union in Addressing Democratic Recession in Africa. Journal of African Union        Studies (JoAUS).

Osadebe, N. O., Ajah, B. O., Onyejegbu, D. C., Obumunaeme, I. K., Theresa, I. C., Chuwkuka,      U. C., Ohabuenyi, J., & Ugwu, C. C. O. (2024). Incorporating virtual reality and       augmented reality into the rehabilitation and re-empowerment of victims of Sudanese    political unrest. African Renaissance (AR), 21(4), 437-456.

Onyejegbu, D. C., Ajah, B.O., Ekwok, I. C., Obisessan, O. O., Uzoigwe, C. O., Isife, C.        T.,        Enweonwu, O. A., Okemini, O. O., & Eze, O. J. (2024). How Nollywood Can           Facilitate Criminal Justice Responses to Herdsmen Issues in Nigeria. Journal of African     films and Diaspora Studies (JAFDIS) (Research on African Films, Diaspora Studies,       Performance Arts and Communication Studies), 7(3), 291-306.

Chinweze, U. C., Ajah, B. O., Osadebe, N. O., Isife, C. T., Umahi, O. T., Enweonwu, O. A., Ogbodo, C. S., Chukwuanu, S. C., Aladokiye, E. G. (2024).
            Prospective Strategies for the use of Virtual and Augmented Realities by the Somali             Criminal Justice System in Bringing Al-Shabab Terrorists to Justice. Journal of Somali        Studies (JoSS), 11(2), 79-104.

Anierobi, C. M., Obasi, C. O., Nnamani, R. G., Ajah, B. O.,  Iloma, D. O.,  Efobi, K. O.,       Nwaoga, C., Asadu, N., Okonkwo, U. T.,  Chigbe, E. I. (2024). Communal conflicts in      Nigeria: Assessment of the impacts on internally displaced persons and settlements      amidst COVID-19 pandemic. Heliyon, 10(1), e30200.             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30200

Eze, O.J., Onyejegbu, D.C., Chinweze, U.C., Nwokedi, M., Ajah, B.O., & Obi, D.O (2023).            Dark Figure: Traders’ Crime Reporting Behaviour in Enugu State, Nigeria. Journal of      African films and Diaspora Studies (JAFDIS) (Research on African Films, Diaspora         Studies, Performance Arts and Communication Studies), 6(4), 45-63.

Ugwuoke, C.O., *Ajah, B.O*., Akor, L., Ameh, S.O., Lanshima, C.A., Ngwu, C.E., Eze, U.A, &    Nwokedi, M. (2023). Violent Crimes and Insecurity on Nigerian Highways: A Tale of Travelers’ Trauma, Nightmares and State Slumber. HELIYON, HLY_e20489

Asogwa, U., Ajah, B. O., Okpa, J. T., Ugwu, I. P., Nnamani, R. G., & Okorie, A. (2023).        Examining the views and opinions of itinerary-traders on adherence to covid-19     lockdown in Enugu State, Nigeria.  Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 16, 1-24. doi: 10.1007/s40647-023-00376-y

Ezeanya, O.C.P., Ajah, B. O., Okpa, J.T., Chinweze, U. C., Onyejegbu, D.C., Enweonwu, O.        A., & Obiwulu, A. C. (2023). Elite complicity in the non-egalitarian structures,         occasioning violence and anarchy in the Nigerian State. African Renaissance, 20(1), 77-    92.

Okpa, J.T., Ugwuoke, C.U., Ajah, O. B*., Eshioste, E., Igbe, J. E., Ajor, O.J., Ofem, N.O.,            Eteng, M.J., & Nnamani, R.G. (2022). Cyberspace, black-hat hacking and economic       sustainability of corporate organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria. SAGE OPEN.         10.1177/21582440221122739.

Okpa, J. T., Ajah, B. O., Nzeakor, O.F., Eshioste, E., & Abang, T.A. (2022). Business E-mail     compromise scam, cyber victimisation and economic sustainability of corporate organisations in Nigeria. Security Journal, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-         00342-5

Iloma, D.O., Nnam, M. U., Effiong, J. E., Eteng, M. J., Okechukwu, G. P., & Ajah, B. O.           (2022). Exploring socio-demographic factors, avoiding being a victim and fear of crime    in a Nigerian university. Security Journal, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-         00336-3

Ajah, B. O., Chinweze, U.C., Ajah, A.I., Onyejegbu, D.C., Obiwulu, A., Onwuama, E.M., &            Okpa, J. T. (2022). Behind bars but not sentenced: the role of computerized central          repository in addressing awaiting-trial problems in Ebonyi state, Nigeria. SAGE Open,       12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221079822

Ajah, L.O., Ajah, M. I., Ajah, B. O., Onwe, E. O., Ozumba, B.C.,  Iyoke, C.A., & Nwankwo, T.C. (2022). A 20 Year retrospective review of rape pattern in Ebonyi State, South-East    Nigeria. Heliyon, 8, e08894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08894

Ezeanya, O.C.P., Ajah, B. O., Ibenwa, C.N., Onuorah, C. & Eze, U. (2022). A critical analysis      of the impact of religion on the Nigerian struggle for nationhood. HTS Teologiese          Studies/Theological Studies, 78(4), a7225. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts. v78i4.7225.

Ajah, B. O., Nnam, M. U., Ajah, I. A., Idemili-Aronu, N., Chukwuemeka, O. D., & Agboti, C.   I. (2021). Investigating the awareness of virtual and augmented realities as a criminal        justice response to the plight of awaiting-trial inmates in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Crime,    Law and Social Change, DOI:10.1007/s10611-021-09988-5.

Eze, O.J., Ajah, B. O., Nwonovo, O. S., & Atama, C.S. (2021). Health sector corruption and        COVID-19 outbreak: evidence from Anambra and Enugu States, Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 40(1), 34-46. DOI:10.1080/02589001.2021.1921129

Nnam, M.U., Effiong, J.E., Iloma, D.O., Terfa, I.M., & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Hazardous drinking and the dark triad: an antidote for manipulative behaviour among   students. Current Psychology, 40(4), 1-7.

Anthony, E.O., Obasi, C.O., Obi, D.O., Ajah, B. O., Okpan, O.S., Onyejegbu, C.D. et al.,           (2021). Exploring the reasons for perennial attacks on churches in Nigeria through the            victims’ perspective. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 77(1), a6207.

Ezeanya, O. C. P. & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Addressing the biblical and ecclesial obligation of           Nigerian Roman-Catholic priests in promotion of peace and social justice. HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies, 77(4), a7138.        https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v77i4.7138

Nnamani, G. R., Ilo, K. O., Onyejegbu, D. C., Ajah, B. O., Onwuama, M. E., Obiwulu, A. C.,      & Nzeakor, O. F. (2021). Use of noncustodial measure and independent monitoring body        as panacea to awaiting-trial problems in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of     Criminal Justice Sciences, 16(1), 51-63.

Ugwuoke, C. O., Ajah, B. O., & Onyejegbu, C. D. (2020). Developing patterns of violent        crimes in Nigerian democratic transitions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 53, 1-8.

Ajah, B. O., Ajah, A.I., & Obasi, C. O. (2020). Application of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in the investigation and trial of herdsmen terrorism in Nigeria.      International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 15(1), 1-20.

Okpa, J.T., Ajah, B. O., & Igbe, J. E. (2020). Rising trend of phishing attacks on corporate    organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. International Journal of Cyber Criminology,           14(2), 460–478.

Ajah, B. O., Dinne, C.E., & Salami, K. K. (2020). Terrorism in contemporary Nigerian     society: conquest of Boko-Haram, myth or reality. International Journal of Criminal           Justice Sciences, 15(1), 312-324.

Eze, O. J., Obi, D. O., & Ajah, B. O. (2020). Nigerian criminal justice system and victims of   crime neglect in Enugu Urban. FWU Journal of Social Sciences 14(3), 41-53.

Ajah, B. O*, Uwakwe, E. E., Nwokeoma, B. N., Ugwuoke C. O., & Nnnamani, R. G. (2020).   Ameliorating the plight of awaiting-trial inmates in ebonyi state, nigeria through       reasonable bail condition.  Pertanika Jounal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 28(4),         2897 – 2911.

Areh, C. E., Onwuama, E. M., & Ajah, B. O. (2020). Social consequences of wife-battering in Ogbaru and Onitsha North Local Government Areas of Anambra State, Nigeria. FWU         Journal of Social Sciences, 14(4), 80-92.

Ajah, B. O., & Okpa, J. T. (2019). Digitization as a solution to the problem of awaiting-trial          inmates in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 14(2), 199–207.

Ajah, B. O., & Onyejegbu, D. C. (2019). Neo-economy and militating effects of Africa’s      profile on cybercrime. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 13(2), 326–342.

Nnam, M. U., Ajah, B. O., Arua, C. C., Okechukwu, G., & Okorie, C. O. (2019). The war      must be sustained: an integrated theoretical perspective of the cyberspace-Boko Haram    terrorism nexus in Nigeria. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 13(2), 379–395.

Ajah, B. O. (2018). Educational training of inmates in Awka and Abakaliki prisons, Nigeria.     International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 13(2), 299–305.

Ajah, B. O., & Ugwuoke, C. O. (2018). Juvenile justice administration and child prisoners in             Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 13(2), 438–446.

Enweonwu, O. A., Ugwu, I. P., Onyejegbu, D. C., Areh, C. E., & Ajah, B. O. (2021).        Religious fanaticism and changing patterns of violent Crime in Nigeria. International        Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1378–1389. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-        4409.2021.10.158

Onyejegbu, D. C., Onwuama, E. M., Onah, C. I., Okpa, J. T., & Ajah, B. O. (2021).  Special        courts as Nigerian criminal justice response to the plight of awaiting trial inmates in       Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1172-   1177. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2021.10.136

Nwadike, N. C., Okpa, J. T., Ofem, N. O., Ajah, B. O., Chinweze, U. C., & Isife, C. T. (2023).           Socio-cultural practices and stress among working mothers of underage children in          Nigeria Public Universities. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities,    15(3), 1-23.

Areh, C. E., Ajah, B. O., Ezeanya, O. C. P., Eze, A. U., Onwuchekwa, S. I., & Onyejegbu, C.        D. (2021). The Troubling Epidemic of Wife-Battering in Ogbaru and Onitsha North             Local Government Areas of Anambra State, Nigeria. International Journal of    Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1349-1361.

Nzeakor, O. F., Nwokeoma, B. N., Hassan, I. M., Ajah, B. O., & Okpa, J. T. (2022).        Emerging Trends in Cyber ends in Cybercrime A crime Awareness in Nigeria.      International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence & Cybercrime, 5(3), 41-67.

Onwuama, O. P., Ajah, O. B., Asadu, N., Ebimgbo, S. O., Odii, A., & Okpara, K. C (2019).         Public perception of police performance in crimes control in Anambra state of Nigeria.       African Journal of Law and Criminology, 9(1) 17-26.

Ajah, B. O., Eze, O. J., & Okpa, J. T. (2024). Reforming the Nigeria Criminal Justice System.       Rowman & Littlefield.

Eze, O.J., *Ajah, B.O.*, Okpa, J.T., Ngwu, G. E. (2023). Ethnic-based violence: Nigeria       perspectives. In: Martin, C., V. R. Preedy and V. B. Patel (Eds), Handbook of anger,           aggression, and violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98711- 4_182-2

Eze, J.O., Okpa, J.T., Onyejegbu, C.D., & *Ajah, B. O*. (2022). Cybercrime: victims’ shock         absorption mechanisms. UK: IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.106818.

Alawari, B. M., & Ajah, O. B. (2017). Understanding the gender dimensions of cyberbullying among           undergraduates in Nigeria. (A Book Chapter). Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited, Zaria.

Okpa, J. T., *Ajah, B. O*., Eze, O. J., & Enweonwu, O. A. (2022). Communal conflict and            violence: Causes and impact. In C. Martin, V. R. Preedy and V. B. Patel (eds) Handbook    of Anger, Aggression, and Violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-           98711-4_184-1

Sergey Tokarev on Generation H’s Third Season Opening to International Startups for the First Time

The Generation H accelerator programme, run by SET University and the Tokarev Foundation, has announced the launch of its third intake. For the first time in its history, this HealthTech accelerator, which specialises in medical technologies, has expanded the list of teams eligible to participate. Ukrainian startups based abroad that have an MVP or a product ready to scale within ten weeks can now join the programme. This was announced by Sergey Tokarev, founder of the Tokarev Foundation and co-founder of SET University.

What is known about the Generation H programme

Over the past two seasons, 30 projects have gone through the HealthTech accelerator, and the total amount of investment raised by its alumni has reached 11 million hryvnias. The startups have won competitions such as Google for Startups, IT Arena, and EIT Jumpstarter, entered European and American markets, and made it into the top 200 of the TechCrunch Startup Battlefield.

Among the graduates are:

• TAYRA.AI — an AI medical scribe that automatically structures doctors’ consultations
• M Shield — a drug that prevents the spread of metastases
• Ovul — an AI device for tracking fertility through saliva analysis

“In my opinion, the HealthTech sector offers the shortest path to making a real impact on quality of life. However, we need not only a high-quality product, but also an understanding of medical logic, regulatory frameworks, and decision-making cycles. That is why, unlike many other sectors, HealthTech cannot do without mentorship and acceleration,” says Sergey Tokarev.

According to the organisers, given current market dynamics, expanding internationally is a sound strategy: AI in healthcare is growing by 35–40% annually, and the global digital health sector has already surpassed $300 billion.

Programme participants can expect personalised mentoring, product crash tests, business model validation, workshops on entering international markets, individual matchmaking, and support with regulatory issues. Mentors include Eric Henry, Senior Counsel for FDA Compliance at King & Spalding; Fergus O’Dea, Vice President of Commercial Operations at FIRE1; Volodymyr Nerubenko, co-founder of Liki24 Foundation and TerraLab; and Alexa Sinyacheva, a Techstars mentor and co-founder of Moeco.

“One of the main reasons for launching Generation H was that the Ukrainian HealthTech sector was severely underestimated, and we needed to change that. Now we are testing whether it is possible to create a global hub for innovation in Ukraine. That is why, for the first time, we are expanding the programme to include Ukrainian startups based abroad,” adds Sergey Tokarev. Generation H will be held in a hybrid format. International participants can take part online. The grand prize is 650,000 hryvnias. Applications must be submitted by 24 May via the SET University website.

At the end of April, a notable deal dropped in the edge AI space. Blaize and NeoTensr signed an agreement worth up to $50 million to deploy edge AI infrastructure across the Asia-Pacific region. This isn’t just another partnership announcement. It shows how fast edge AI is moving from concept to actual deployment, especially in Asia.

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What the deal actually includes

The agreement focuses on building a full-stack edge AI ecosystem rather than delivering isolated components. Instead of selling just chips or servers, the two companies are working on co-branded AI edge data centers that combine hardware optimized for inference, a software layer for deployment and orchestration, and real enterprise-facing AI services. The projected value reaches $50 million, and this comes after the two companies already generated over $20 million together in 2025. That makes it clear this is not an early-stage experiment, but a continuation of something that is already working.

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Why this matters now

The key idea behind this move is simple: AI is shifting closer to where data is created. Instead of sending everything to the cloud, companies are deploying compute directly at the edge, which reduces latency and allows systems to react in real time. It also changes how data is handled, especially in environments where privacy or bandwidth is a concern. This direction is described well in edge AI for real-time analytics systems, where local processing becomes the default instead of the fallback option.

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The hardware layer behind the trend

None of this works without the right hardware. Edge AI systems need chips that can handle multiple workloads at once, including computer vision and neural network inference, while staying power-efficient. That is why the industry is moving toward newer SoC designs, such as those discussed in next-generation Rockchip AI processors comparison, where architectures are built specifically for mixed AI workloads rather than general-purpose computing. This shift in silicon design is what makes large-scale edge deployments like the Blaize and NeoTensr project possible.

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Why APAC is the focus

Asia-Pacific is not a случайный выбор. The region combines dense urban infrastructure, strong manufacturing capacity, and rapid adoption of smart systems across industries. This creates an environment where edge AI can be deployed at scale and tested in real-world conditions. In many cases, technologies that succeed in APAC later expand globally, which makes this rollout particularly important to watch.

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The bigger picture

What makes this deal stand out is not just the size of the investment, but how it is structured. Instead of focusing on isolated pilots or limited experiments, the companies are building infrastructure from the ground up with real deployment in mind. The emphasis is clearly on enterprise use cases, and the solution itself combines hardware, software, and services into one integrated system. This approach reflects a broader shift in the AI industry, where value is no longer in individual components but in complete, deployable platforms.

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Final takeaway

The Blaize and NeoTensr partnership is a clear signal that edge AI is entering a new phase. This is no longer about concepts or early prototypes. It is about infrastructure that is being built and deployed in real environments. If this $50 million rollout proves successful, it will likely accelerate similar projects across other regions and push the industry further toward distributed AI systems that operate closer to where data is generated.

Citation

Wijesinghe, T. C., & Jiang, P. (2026). When Credibility Meets the Algorithm: How Trust and Algorithm Awareness Shape Influencer Effectiveness in Chinese Social Commerce. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 168–185. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/13

First author – Thivanka Chamith Wijesinghe

Associate Professor, School of Management, Chongqing college of international business and economics, Chongqing, China

Second author – Pei Jiang

Lecturer, School of Management, Chongqing college of international business and economics, Chongqing, China

Abstract

Social commerce has transformed online shopping by integrating influencer-driven content with platform-based interactions. Drawing on source credibility theory, this study investigates how influencer credibility affects consumers’ purchase intention in Chinese social commerce. We further examine the mediating role of trust and the moderating role of consumer algorithm awareness. Data were collected through an online survey across multiple regions in China, yielding 244 valid responses. Using SPSS, reliability, validity, regression, mediation, and moderation analyses were conducted. The results indicate that influencer credibility positively influences purchase intention both directly and indirectly through trust. Trust was found to be a key psychological mechanism driving influencer effectiveness. Importantly, algorithm awareness negatively moderates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention. Higher algorithm awareness weakens the persuasive impact of influencer credibility. These findings highlight the growing importance of platform-level cognition in shaping influencer marketing outcomes.

Keywords: Social commerce, Influencer credibility, Trust, Purchase intention, Algorithm awareness, Influencer marketing, Chinese digital platforms

1. Introduction

Social commerce has rapidly transformed consumer purchase behaviour by merging social interactions with online shopping on platforms such as Douyin, Taobao Live, and Xiaohongshu (Hajli, 2015; Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020). Influencers have become central to this emerging ecosystem, acting as pivotal intermediaries who shape consumer engagement, attitudes, and decision-making processes (Lou & Yuan, 2019; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020). Prior research grounded in source credibility theory demonstrates that influencer credibility—commonly conceptualised through expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness—positively affects consumers’ purchase intentions (Hovland et al., 1953; Ohanian, 1990). Specifically, credible influencers enhance followers’ confidence, reduce perceived risk, and improve brand attitudes, which in turn increase the likelihood of purchase decisions (De Veirman et al., 2017; Ki & Kim, 2019). For example, studies show that influencer credibility positively impacts purchase intentions by enhancing brand equity and consumer attitudes toward promoted products (Lou & Yuan, 2019).

Beyond traditional social media settings, the role of influencer credibility has also been examined within social commerce contexts, including live-streaming e-commerce, where influencers’ persuasive effects on purchase intention are well documented (Sun et al., 2019; Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020). Moreover, recent literature suggests that influencer attributes significantly influence Gen Z’s online purchase decisions and that credibility continues to function as a core determinant of behavioural outcomes (Sokolova & Kefi, 2020; Ki et al., 2020).

However, most existing studies implicitly assume that consumers evaluate influencer credibility in isolation, without accounting for the broader algorithmic processes that govern content exposure and influencer visibility. In contemporary social commerce platforms, recommendation algorithms determine which influencers are surfaced to users and how often their content appears in personalised feeds (Zarouali et al., 2021). With the increasing commercial sophistication of these platforms, consumers are becoming more cognizant of algorithmic curation, a phenomenon that recent marketing and communication studies are beginning to acknowledge but have not yet systematically examined in relation to influencer effectiveness (Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023).

Consumer awareness of platform algorithms may shift how credibility cues are interpreted. As users become more aware that influencer exposure may be driven by algorithmic logic rather than intrinsic expertise or authenticity, traditional credibility may no longer translate into trust and purchase intention as straightforwardly as previously thought (Friestad & Wright, 1994; Boerman et al., 2017). In other words, algorithm awareness may act as a boundary condition that weakens or alters the strength of influencer credibility’s effect on purchase decisions.

Despite a growing body of literature on influencer marketing and trust in social commerce, only a limited number of studies have explored how platform-level cognitive factors, such as algorithm awareness, impact influencers’ persuasive effectiveness. Most prior research has focused on individual-level psychological determinants such as trust, parasocial interaction, or authenticity (Gefen et al., 2003; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020), leaving a critical gap in understanding how consumers’ algorithm cognitions interact with influencer credibility in shaping purchase intention.

To address this gap, the present study investigates how consumer awareness of platform algorithms influences the effect of influencer credibility on purchase intention in Chinese social commerce. By introducing algorithm awareness as a moderating factor, this research advances the influencer marketing literature beyond traditional credibility models and highlights the importance of platform-level cognition in consumer decision processes (Zarouali et al., 2021; Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023).

This study contributes to the literature in several key ways. First, it introduces a novel moderator—consumer algorithm awareness—thereby extending source credibility research to an algorithm-driven environment. Second, by integrating this moderator into the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention, this study provides new insights into why influencer effectiveness may vary across different consumer segments and platform contexts. Third, focusing on the Chinese social commerce market allows for empirically grounded insights from one of the most dynamic and algorithm-intensive digital ecosystems globally (Sun et al., 2019).

2. Literature Review

2.1. Influencer Credibility in Social Commerce

Influencer marketing research consistently emphasises source credibility as a primary driver of persuasion effectiveness (Hovland et al., 1953; Lou & Yuan, 2019). Within the source credibility tradition, credibility is commonly operationalised through expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness, a widely adopted measurement approach developed and validated by Ohanian (1990).

In social commerce environments, influencer credibility functions as a heuristic cue that shapes how consumers interpret product information, reduces uncertainty, and forms favourable evaluations toward promoted offerings (Ki & Kim, 2019; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020). Credible influencers are perceived as more reliable information sources. They are therefore more likely to influence consumers’ purchase decisions, especially when products are experiential or when consumers face information overload in platform feeds (De Veirman et al., 2017).

In China’s platform-driven social commerce (e.g., short-video and live-streaming commerce), influencers are not merely content creators but commerce facilitators who combine entertainment, product demonstration, and real-time interaction (Sun et al., 2019; Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020). Studies of live-streaming commerce show that trust-building and streamer-related attributes are strongly associated with consumers’ purchase intention (Xu et al., 2020; Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020). Similarly, research in Chinese community e-commerce contexts (e.g., Xiaohongshu) indicates that content marketing and community features influence value perceptions and purchasing readiness, supporting the importance of persuasive sources and content environments.

2.2. Purchase Intention as a Key Outcome in Influencer-Based Persuasion

Purchase intention remains one of the most common dependent variables in influencer and social commerce research because it captures consumers’ behavioural readiness to buy in digital environments (Hajli, 2015). In influencer-led commerce, purchase intention is frequently explained by trust, perceived value, and favourable attitudes, mechanisms that are directly shaped by the influencer’s perceived credibility (Lou & Yuan, 2019; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020). In live commerce specifically, streamer characteristics and trust have been shown to predict purchase intention, reinforcing credibility and trust as central predictors (Sun et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2020).

2.3. Consumer Awareness of Platform Algorithms

While influencer credibility has been widely studied, the platform context has often been treated as a neutral channel. This assumption is increasingly problematic because modern social commerce is shaped by algorithmic ranking and recommendation systems (Zarouali et al., 2021). Consumers’ awareness that “what they see” is filtered, prioritised, and repeatedly exposed by algorithms may change how they interpret influencer popularity, perceived authenticity, and persuasive intent (Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023).

Recent communication and information systems research has begun to measure algorithm awareness directly. Zarouali et al. (2021) developed and validated the Algorithmic Media Content Awareness (AMCA) scale to assess users’ understanding that algorithms shape content selection and exposure. Further, research shows that algorithm awareness has meaningful attitudinal and behavioural correlates in social media environments; Oeldorf-Hirsch (2023) adapts AMCA to general social media awareness and demonstrates its relevance to user perceptions and outcomes.

More recent evidence suggests that algorithm awareness can influence technology-related beliefs such as perceived usefulness, ease of use, and trust, which are closely connected to behavioural intention (Shin et al., 2022).

2.4. Why Algorithm Awareness May Change the Credibility of Purchase Intention

A key theoretical explanation is that algorithm awareness may activate consumers’ persuasion coping and scepticism. Research grounded in the Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) suggests that when consumers recognise persuasive intent, they engage in more critical processing and resistance, thereby reducing persuasion effectiveness (Friestad & Wright, 1994). Disclosure research further shows that recognising sponsored persuasion can significantly alter consumer attitudes and behavioural outcomes (Boerman et al., 2017).

In algorithm-driven platforms, consumers who are highly aware of algorithmic amplification may attribute influencer visibility to platform manipulation rather than intrinsic expertise or trustworthiness (Zarouali et al., 2021; Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023). As a result, the traditional persuasive power of influencer credibility may weaken among high algorithm-awareness consumers, while remaining stronger among low algorithm-awareness consumers who rely more heavily on credibility cues as decision shortcuts (Friestad & Wright, 1994).

2.6 Conceptual Framework

This study proposes a moderated mediation framework to explain how influencer credibility affects purchase intention in Chinese social commerce. Influencer credibility is conceptualised as a higher-order construct comprising expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness (Ohanian, 1990). Drawing on source credibility theory, influencer credibility is expected to positively influence purchase intention both directly and indirectly through trust (Lou & Yuan, 2019). Trust serves as a mediating mechanism that explains how credibility perceptions translate into behavioural intention (Gefen et al., 2003).

Furthermore, this study introduces consumer awareness of platform algorithms as a moderating variable. Algorithm awareness reflects consumers’ understanding that influencer visibility and content exposure are shaped by platform recommendation systems (Zarouali et al., 2021). It is proposed that higher levels of algorithm awareness weaken the positive effect of influencer credibility on trust and purchase intention, such that the indirect effect of influencer credibility via trust is also contingent on consumers’ algorithm awareness (Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023).

2.7 Hypotheses Development

H1: Influencer credibility positively influences consumers’ purchase intention in Chinese social commerce.
Credible endorsers are more persuasive and more likely to influence behavioural outcomes (Hovland et al., 1953; Ohanian, 1990; Lou & Yuan, 2019).

H2: Influencer credibility positively influences consumers’ trust in Chinese social commerce.
In live-streaming commerce, trust is repeatedly identified as a central mechanism that converts influencer effects into purchase intention (Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020; Xu et al., 2020).

H3: Consumers’ trust positively influences purchase intention in Chinese social commerce.
Trust reduces perceived risk and increases confidence in purchase decisions, particularly in online commerce environments (Gefen et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2008).

H4: Trust mediates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention.
Trust explains how credibility perceptions translate into behavioural intention (Lou & Yuan, 2019; Gefen et al., 2003).

H5: Consumer algorithm awareness negatively moderates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention.
Consumers with high algorithm awareness may respond more sceptically to influencer exposure, weakening credibility effects (Friestad & Wright, 1994; Zarouali et al., 2021).

H6: Consumer algorithm awareness negatively moderates the indirect effect of influencer credibility on purchase intention through trust.
The mediating role of trust becomes weaker at higher levels of algorithm awareness due to increased persuasion resistance (Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023; Boerman et al., 2017).

3. Methodology

Data were collected through an online questionnaire survey administered across multiple regions in China, ensuring broad geographical coverage. The survey targeted users with prior experience in social commerce and influencer-based online shopping. A total of 251 responses were collected. After screening for incomplete and invalid questionnaires, 244 valid responses were retained for analysis. All measurement items were assessed using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire consisted of items measuring influencer credibility, trust, purchase intention, and algorithm awareness. Prior to hypothesis testing, the data were examined for reliability and validity. SPSS 26.0 was employed to conduct reliability analysis, validity testing, correlation analysis, and regression analysis. Mediation effects were tested using a bootstrap approach, and moderation effects were examined through interaction term analysis. This analytical procedure ensured the robustness and reliability of the empirical findings.

4. Empirical Analysis Report

4.1. Sample and Data Description

A total of 244 questionnaires were collected through an online survey targeting Chinese social commerce users. After screening for completeness and response quality, 244 valid responses were retained for analysis. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0. The sample was considered appropriate for examining the proposed relationships among influencer credibility, trust, purchase intention, and algorithm awareness.

4.2. Measurement Model and Construct Operationalisation

The study employed four reflective constructs: Influencer Credibility (IC), Trust (TR), Purchase Intention (PI), and Algorithm Awareness (AA). Each construct was measured using three items adapted from prior studies. Influencer Credibility captured respondents’ perceptions of the influencer’s expertise, trustworthiness, and overall credibility. Trust reflected the degree to which respondents believed the influencer and the recommendation context to be reliable. Purchase Intention assessed respondents’ likelihood of purchasing products promoted through social commerce. Algorithm Awareness measured the extent to which respondents were aware that platform algorithms influence content visibility and recommendation exposure. Composite scores were calculated by averaging the items for each construct.

4.3. Reliability Analysis

Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha to evaluate the internal consistency of the measurement scales. As presented in Table 1, all constructs demonstrated acceptable to excellent reliability. Specifically, Influencer Credibility recorded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.748, indicating acceptable internal consistency. The remaining constructs showed very high reliability, with alpha values of 0.969 for Trust, 0.971 for Purchase Intention, and 0.915 for Algorithm Awareness. Overall, these results confirm that the measurement items used in this study were sufficiently reliable for subsequent analysis.

Table 1. Reliability Analysis

Construct	Items	Cronbach’s α
Influencer Credibility	Q1-Q3	0.748
Trust	Q4-Q6	0.969
Purchase Intention	Q7-Q9	0.971
Algorithm Awareness	Q10-Q12	0.915

4.4. Validity Analysis

Construct validity was assessed using Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). As shown in Table 2, the CR values ranged from 0.79 to 0.98, all of which exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.70, indicating satisfactory construct reliability. Likewise, the AVE values ranged from 0.56 to 0.86, all above the recommended cutoff value of 0.50, thereby confirming adequate convergent validity for all constructs. These findings suggest that the measurement model demonstrates satisfactory reliability and validity, and that the observed items adequately represent their corresponding latent constructs.

Table 2. Validity Analysis

Construct	CR	AVE
Influencer Credibility	0.79	0.56
Trust	0.97	0.85
Purchase Intention	0.98	0.86
Algorithm Awareness	0.93	0.75

4.5. Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics were calculated to provide an overview of the central tendency and dispersion of the study variables. As shown in Table 3, Algorithm Awareness had the highest mean score (M = 3.98, SD = 0.93), indicating that respondents were relatively aware of platform algorithms in social commerce settings. Influencer Credibility also recorded a moderately high mean (M = 3.45, SD = 0.74). In contrast, Purchase Intention (M = 3.12, SD = 1.33) and Trust (M = 2.77, SD = 1.08) showed comparatively lower mean values. These results suggest moderate variation in respondents’ perceptions and behavioural intentions across the measured constructs.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics

Construct	Mean	SD
Influencer Credibility	3.45	0.74
Trust	2.77	1.08
Purchase Intention	3.12	1.33
Algorithm Awareness	3.98	0.93

4.6. Correlation Analysis

Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among the key constructs. As presented in Table 4, all correlations were positive and statistically significant at the 0.001 level, providing preliminary support for the proposed hypotheses. More specifically, Influencer Credibility showed a strong positive correlation with Trust (r = 0.814, p < 0.001) and Purchase Intention (r = 0.850, p < 0.001). Trust also exhibited a very strong positive association with Purchase Intention (r = 0.880, p < 0.001), indicating that higher trust is closely related to stronger purchase intention in Chinese social commerce contexts. In addition, Algorithm Awareness was moderately and positively correlated with Influencer Credibility (r = 0.590, p < 0.001), Trust (r = 0.420, p < 0.001), and Purchase Intention (r = 0.400, p < 0.001). Overall, these findings indicate meaningful associations among the core study variables and provide an initial basis for the subsequent regression, mediation, and moderation analyses.

Table 4. Correlation Analysis

Construct	IC	TR	PI	AA
IC	1
TR	0.814	1
PI	0.850	0.880	1
AA	0.590	0.420***	0.400	1

Note. p < 0.001.

4.7. Regression Analysis and Hypothesis Testing (H1-H3)

Regression analysis was conducted to test the direct relationships proposed in H1 to H3. The results indicated that Influencer Credibility significantly predicted Purchase Intention, supporting H1. This finding suggests that consumers are more likely to purchase products promoted in Chinese social commerce when they perceive the influencer as credible. In addition, Influencer Credibility significantly predicted Trust, providing support for H2 and confirming that influencer credibility contributes to the development of consumer trust in the recommendation context. Trust also had a significant positive effect on Purchase Intention, thereby supporting H3. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that influencer credibility operates both as a direct driver of behavioural intention and as an antecedent of trust. Because the exact standardised coefficients, t-values, and significance levels were not included in the available results summary, this section reports the hypothesis outcomes qualitatively.

4.8. Mediation Analysis (H4)

To test H4, a mediation analysis was performed using a bootstrap approach. The results showed that Trust partially mediated the relationship between Influencer Credibility and Purchase Intention. This means that influencer credibility affected purchase intention not only directly, but also indirectly through the enhancement of consumer trust. The indirect effect confidence interval was reported to exclude zero, indicating that the mediation effect was statistically meaningful. Accordingly, H4 was supported. These finding highlights trust as an important psychological mechanism through which influencer credibility translates into stronger consumer purchase intention in Chinese social commerce.

4.9. Moderation Analysis (H5)

H5 proposed that consumer algorithm awareness negatively moderates the relationship between Influencer Credibility and Purchase Intention. The moderation analysis indicated that the interaction term between Influencer Credibility and Algorithm Awareness was significant. This suggests that the positive effect of influencer credibility on purchase intention becomes weaker as consumers’ awareness of algorithmic content curation increases. In practical terms, consumers who are more aware of how platform algorithms shape exposure to influencer content may respond more sceptically to influencer recommendations, thereby reducing the persuasive power of credibility cues. Therefore, H5 was supported.

4.10. Moderated Mediation Analysis (H6)

H6 proposed that consumer algorithm awareness negatively moderates the indirect effect of Influencer Credibility on Purchase Intention through Trust. Conceptually, this means that the mediating role of trust should be stronger when algorithm awareness is low and weaker when algorithm awareness is high. Based on the overall pattern of findings, the results are directionally consistent with H6: higher algorithm awareness appears to weaken the trust-based persuasive pathway from influencer credibility to purchase intention. However, because the available summary did not include the index of moderated mediation, conditional indirect effects at different levels of algorithm awareness, or the corresponding bootstrap confidence intervals, H6 should be reported with caution. Accordingly, the evidence may be described as providing preliminary or indicative support for H6 rather than definitive confirmation. If PROCESS output or equivalent conditional indirect effect statistics become available, this section can be upgraded to a fully supported hypothesis statement.

4.11. Summary of Empirical Findings

Overall, the empirical results provide strong support for the proposed research model. Influencer Credibility was found to have a significant positive effect on both Trust and Purchase Intention, supporting H1 and H2. Trust significantly enhanced Purchase Intention, supporting H3. The mediation analysis showed that Trust partially mediated the effect of Influencer Credibility on Purchase Intention, supporting H4. The moderation analysis further showed that Algorithm Awareness weakened the direct influence of Influencer Credibility on Purchase Intention, supporting H5. Finally, the broader pattern of findings is consistent with H6, although stronger statistical evidence is still required to confirm the moderated mediation effect conclusively. Taken together, the results suggest that trust is a key explanatory mechanism and algorithm awareness is an important boundary condition in influencer-based social commerce.

Table 5. Summary of Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis	Statement	Decision
H1	Influencer credibility positively influences purchase intention.	Supported
H2	Influencer credibility positively influences trust.	Supported
H3	Trust positively influences purchase intention.	Supported
H4	Trust mediates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention.	Supported
H5	Algorithm awareness negatively moderates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention.	Supported
H6	Algorithm awareness negatively moderates the indirect effect of influencer credibility on purchase intention through trust.	Preliminary support

The empirical results provide strong support for the proposed research model. Influencer credibility was found to have a significant positive effect on consumers’ purchase intention. Influencer credibility also significantly enhanced consumer trust in social commerce contexts. Trust demonstrated a strong positive influence on purchase intention, confirming its central role in online decision-making. Mediation analysis revealed that trust partially mediates the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention. This indicates that influencer credibility affects purchase intention both directly and indirectly through trust. Furthermore, algorithm awareness was found to moderate the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention negatively. Specifically, higher levels of algorithm awareness weakened the persuasive impact of influencer credibility. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of trust as a key mechanism and algorithm awareness as a critical boundary condition in influencer-based social commerce.

5. Conclusion

This study examined the relationship between influencer credibility and consumers’ purchase intention in Chinese social commerce, with particular attention to the mediating role of trust and the moderating role of algorithm awareness. The findings show that influencer credibility remains an important determinant of consumer behaviour in social commerce environments. Specifically, credible influencers were found to positively affect both consumer trust and purchase intention, confirming that credibility plays a central role in shaping persuasive outcomes.

The results also demonstrate that trust serves as a significant mediating mechanism in the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention. This suggests that consumers are more likely to develop purchase intentions when they perceive influencers as credible and, as a result, trustworthy. In this sense, trust functions as a key psychological pathway through which influencer marketing becomes effective in platform-based commerce settings.

In addition, the study highlights the growing importance of algorithm awareness as a boundary condition in social commerce. The findings indicate that higher levels of algorithm awareness weaken the positive influence of influencer credibility on purchase intention. This suggests that consumers who are more conscious of algorithmic content curation may become more sceptical of influencer recommendations and less responsive to traditional credibility cues. The moderated mediation results further imply that the indirect effect of influencer credibility on purchase intention through trust becomes weaker when algorithm awareness is high.

Overall, this study contributes to the literature by integrating source credibility theory with platform-level cognition in the context of Chinese social commerce. It extends existing research by showing that influencer effectiveness is not determined by credibility alone, but also by how consumers interpret the algorithmic systems that shape content exposure. From a practical perspective, the findings suggest that brands and influencers should not rely solely on credibility-building strategies but also focus on transparency, authenticity, and trust-enhancing communication in order to maintain persuasive effectiveness in increasingly algorithm-aware digital environments.

6. Recommendations

First, influencers should strengthen their credibility by demonstrating expertise, honesty, and consistency in their content. Since the results show that influencer credibility has a strong positive effect on both trust and purchase intention, influencers need to maintain authentic communication, provide accurate product information, and avoid exaggerated promotional claims. A credible influencer is more likely to gain consumer trust and generate stronger purchase intention in social commerce settings (Ohanian, 1990; Lou & Yuan, 2019; Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017). 

Second, brands should prioritise long-term partnerships with credible influencers rather than relying solely on short-term promotional collaborations. Long-term cooperation can help consumers perceive the relationship between the brand and the influencer as more natural and trustworthy. This can improve consumer confidence, reinforce influencer credibility, and enhance the effectiveness of social commerce campaigns (Breves et al., 2019; Sokolova & Kefi, 2020).

Third, marketers should focus on trust-building strategies in influencer-based campaigns. Since trust was found to mediate the relationship between influencer credibility and purchase intention, brands should design campaigns that strengthen trust through honest product demonstrations, user testimonials, transparent reviews, and interactive communication with audiences. These elements can reduce uncertainty and increase consumers’ confidence in purchase decisions (Gefen et al., 2003; Hajli, 2015; Chen & Lin, 2019).

Fourth, platform operators should improve algorithm transparency. The findings indicate that algorithm awareness weakens the persuasive effect of influencer credibility. This suggests that consumers may become more sceptical when they are highly aware that content visibility is shaped by algorithms. Therefore, social commerce platforms should provide clearer explanations of recommendation systems, promotional labelling, and content ranking practices in order to reduce suspicion and improve user trust (Zarouali et al., 2021; Eslami et al., 2018; Shin, 2021).

Fifth, brands and influencers should adapt their strategies according to consumers’ levels of algorithm awareness. For consumers with lower algorithm awareness, traditional credibility cues may remain highly effective. However, for consumers with higher algorithm awareness, more transparent, evidence-based, and authentic communication is necessary. In such cases, marketers should place greater emphasis on product value, real user experience, and disclosure clarity rather than relying only on influencer image or popularity (Friestad & Wright, 1994; Boerman et al., 2017; Oeldorf-Hirsch, 2023).

Sixth, influencers targeting algorithm-aware audiences should emphasise authenticity and disclosure. Clear sponsorship disclosures, genuine product experiences, and balanced opinions can help reduce persuasion resistance and maintain trust. Consumers who understand algorithmic promotion are more likely to question overly polished or repetitive promotional content, so authenticity becomes especially important in these contexts (Evans et al., 2017; Audrezet et al., 2020; Boerman et al., 2017).

Seventh, from a broader strategic perspective, brands should combine influencer marketing with additional trust-enhancing mechanisms, such as consumer reviews, live interaction, after-sales support, and community engagement. These elements can strengthen the overall persuasive effect of influencer campaigns and reduce the risks associated with algorithm-driven scepticism (Hajli, 2015; Wongkitrungrueng & Assarut, 2020; Chen & Lin, 2019).

Finally, future research should further examine algorithm-related consumer cognition in social commerce. This study suggests that algorithm awareness is an important boundary condition. However, additional studies should test related variables such as perceived algorithmic fairness, perceived manipulation, and perceived control over content exposure. Future studies may also explore whether these relationships differ across age groups, product categories, or cultural contexts (Sundar, 2020; Lim et al., 2022; Zarouali et al., 2021).

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Maya runs a corner bakery and posts reels every Friday. Her older clips disappeared from her phone, so she opened a Facebook downloader from fGet and pulled them back in minutes.

Most page owners hit the same wall. Reels age out of phones. Stories vanish in 24 hours. Live broadcasts get buried under newer page posts.

What a Facebook Downloader Actually Does

A Facebook downloader pulls the original media file from a public Facebook URL. The source file lands on your device with the original resolution intact and no login required.

The output keeps the upload quality, so an HD clip comes back in HD. Audio sits inside the MP4 or is extracted to MP3 for podcast use.

Three Steps Maya Uses Every Friday

1. Copy the post link from the Facebook share menu.
2. Paste the URL into the input field on fget.io.
3. Pick MP4 or MP3, then save the file to the camera roll.

The whole flow takes under fifteen seconds for one reel. Bigger live broadcasts finish in roughly a minute, depending on stream length.

How fGet Compares With Other Save Methods

Method	Speed	Output quality	Account needed
Screen recording	Slow	Reduced	No
Browser extension	Medium	Mixed	Often yes
fGet	Fast	Source HD	No

The table shows where each Facebook video download method falls short. Screen recording loses sharpness. Most extensions ask for browser permissions; Maya prefers not to grant them on a work laptop.

What This Means for Daily Bakery Operations

Maya stitches three older reels into a fresh weekend post. She also saves her live Q&A broadcasts so customers who missed the stream can still watch later.

Her phone holds the original MP4 files, not low-grade re-recordings. That matters when a clip needs to look sharp on a printed flyer or a future billboard mockup.

Stories and Live Broadcasts

Stories disappear in a day. With fGet, Maya saves story posts before the timer runs out, including the voice notes she records over morning prep clips.

Live Facebook video download works the same way. She pastes the broadcast URL after the stream ends and receives the full recording as one file.

Working on Any Device

The tool runs inside any web browser. No app store and no installer. iPhone, Android phone, iPad, and desktop laptops all get the same fb video download flow.

Mobile devices receive the file straight to the camera roll. Desktop machines drop the MP4 into the default download folder, ready for editing.

A Quiet Note on Privacy

fGet does not ask for a Facebook login. It processes the URL on the server, returns the file, and clears the request. Nothing stays behind for retargeting.

Files come out without watermarks, since Facebook does not stamp them onto native uploads. The fb download keeps the same quality the creator posted.

A bakery that handles customer footage benefits from that. Any page owner who wants a clean facebook video downloader can pick up fGet the same way Maya did.

The rules that have governed global economics and diplomacy for decades are undergoing a fundamental shift. A new framework suggests that humanity is no longer approaching the future—we are already operating within it.

As reported by TechBullion, economist and diplomat Dr. Drasko Acimovic introduces the concept of the “Third Gutenberg Moment,” a turning point where artificial intelligence and central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) redefine how nations compete, cooperate, and maintain sovereignty.

At its core, this idea builds on historical cycles of transformation. The first major shift came with the invention of the printing press, which made knowledge accessible beyond elite circles. Centuries later, the internet and mobile technologies triggered a second wave, decentralizing information and communication. Today’s phase, according to Acimovic, goes even further—merging digital systems directly into the foundations of economic and political power.

Unlike previous transitions, this moment is not theoretical or distant. It is already unfolding. AI is increasingly embedded in decision-making processes, while digital currencies are being tested and deployed by central banks worldwide. Together, they are reshaping how value is created, distributed, and controlled.

This transformation changes not only tools, but structures. Traditional intermediaries—financial institutions, regulatory layers, and even certain state mechanisms—are gradually losing their central role. In their place, new systems emerge where automation, data, and programmable money define interactions. CBDCs, for example, allow governments to issue and track currency in real time, altering how monetary policy is implemented. Meanwhile, AI systems optimize everything from logistics to governance, reducing reliance on legacy frameworks.

The implications depend largely on how quickly and effectively countries adapt. In previous eras, global hierarchies were relatively stable. Established economies maintained their dominance through infrastructure, capital, and influence. Today, that hierarchy is more fluid. Early adopters of AI-driven systems and digital financial tools can rapidly strengthen their position, regardless of size or historical standing.

For emerging economies, this creates a rare opportunity. By integrating these technologies early, they can bypass traditional development barriers and gain strategic relevance. However, the same dynamic also presents risks. Delayed adoption may lead to technological dependence, reduced sovereignty, and marginalization in global decision-making processes.

Another critical aspect of this shift is often overlooked: it is not purely technological. While engineers and developers build the systems, their design and purpose are shaped by broader societal input. Acimovic emphasizes that the future will be determined not just by code, but by the values embedded within it.

This means that experts from diverse fields—ethics, law, medicine, agriculture, and beyond—must contribute to shaping AI systems and digital financial infrastructures. The question is no longer simply how to build these tools, but how they should function within society. Who benefits? What principles guide their use? And how can they support sustainable and inclusive growth?

In this context, policy becomes as important as innovation. Nations that combine technological capability with clear, human-centered strategies are more likely to succeed. The competitive edge will not belong to those who develop the most advanced algorithms alone, but to those who align technology with long-term societal goals.

The “Third Gutenberg Moment” also introduces a shift in how sovereignty is defined. Traditionally tied to territory and physical resources, sovereignty now increasingly depends on control over digital infrastructure and data flows. Countries that manage these effectively can maintain independence and influence, while those that rely on external systems may face new forms of dependency.

Timing plays a decisive role. This transition phase acts as a window during which global positions can be reshaped. Once new systems become dominant, the structure may stabilize again—potentially locking in advantages for early movers. That is why many governments are accelerating investments in AI strategies and digital currency pilots.

Ultimately, this paradigm highlights a broader reality: the transformation is already operational. It is not something to prepare for in the distant future—it is actively redefining global dynamics today. Institutions are evolving in real time, and the gap between those who adapt and those who hesitate is widening.

Understanding this shift is no longer optional for policymakers, businesses, or institutions. It determines not only competitiveness, but also the ability to participate in shaping the next global order.

The rules of the digital economy are shifting, and this transformation is beginning to affect not only businesses and creators, but also education, skills development, and career building.

As reported by MSN, the long-standing model based on capturing attention is gradually losing relevance, as the volume of content grows and engagement becomes less meaningful as a measure of real value.

For decades, the internet operated on a simple premise: attention is limited, so whoever captures it gains influence and revenue. This idea shaped everything from social media algorithms to online learning platforms, where success was often measured by views, clicks, and completion rates. However, the explosion of digital content has fundamentally changed this equation. Today, learners, professionals, and consumers are exposed to overwhelming amounts of information, making it harder for any single piece of content to stand out or deliver lasting impact.

In education, this is particularly visible. Online courses, tutorials, and microlearning formats are more accessible than ever, yet completion rates remain low and retention is inconsistent. High enrollment numbers or video views no longer guarantee meaningful learning outcomes. This mirrors a broader trend: reach does not automatically translate into value.

The creator economy attempted to address some of these challenges by enabling individuals—educators, experts, and professionals—to monetize their knowledge directly. Through platforms offering subscriptions, paid courses, or community access, teachers gained new opportunities to earn independently. At the same time, learners benefited from more diverse and specialized content.

However, the limitations of this system quickly became apparent. Much like content creators in other industries, educators remain dependent on platforms for visibility and distribution. Algorithms determine which courses are promoted, while user data and audience relationships are often controlled by the platform itself. This makes it difficult for educators to build long-term, independent value around their expertise.

As a result, a new model is emerging—often referred to as the ownership or tokenized economy. In this framework, the focus shifts from content consumption to the individual as a core unit of value. For education, this means that skills, knowledge, experience, and reputation become structured assets that can be developed, verified, and transferred across different environments.

This approach changes how learning works in practice. Instead of relying solely on certificates issued by institutions or platforms, individuals can build portable records of their achievements. These records may include completed projects, demonstrated competencies, peer validation, and real-world results. Crucially, they are not tied to a single platform and can evolve over time.

One of the key enablers of this shift is the development of new technological infrastructure. Decentralized systems, including blockchain-based solutions, allow for secure and transparent storage of data related to skills and accomplishments. This makes it possible to verify credentials without relying on centralized authorities, reducing the risk of data loss or manipulation.

For students and professionals, this creates a more dynamic model of career development. Instead of following a linear path defined by degrees and job titles, individuals can build personalized portfolios that reflect their actual capabilities. Employers, in turn, gain access to more reliable indicators of performance, moving beyond traditional resumes toward verifiable, data-driven profiles.

Another important change is the evolution of metrics used to evaluate success. In the past, educational platforms focused on indicators such as enrollment numbers, completion rates, and user engagement. While still relevant, these metrics are increasingly complemented—or replaced—by more meaningful measures. These include long-term career outcomes, the ability to apply knowledge in real-world contexts, and the consistency of results over time.

This shift also highlights the growing importance of trust. As information becomes more abundant, learners are more selective about whom they follow and what sources they rely on. Individual educators, mentors, and experts are gaining prominence because they can build direct relationships with their audiences. Trust, once mediated by institutions, is increasingly centered around people.

Several factors are accelerating this transformation. First, the saturation of content makes it clear that simply producing more educational material is not enough. Quality, relevance, and applicability matter more than volume. Second, there is a growing demand for lifelong learning, driven by rapid changes in the labor market. People need flexible systems that allow them to continuously update their skills without starting from scratch. Third, technological innovation is making it possible to capture and manage personal value in new ways.

Platforms like Sl8 illustrate how these ideas can be implemented. By combining digital identity, financial tools, and mechanisms for tracking value, such systems allow users to turn their skills and reputation into structured assets. For educators, this means not just selling courses, but building ecosystems around their expertise. For learners, it provides new ways to demonstrate competence and participate in economic activity based on their knowledge.

Importantly, this model also changes incentives. Instead of optimizing for clicks or short-term engagement, participants are encouraged to focus on sustainable value creation. Educators are rewarded for delivering measurable results, while learners are incentivized to develop skills that have real-world impact.

At the same time, this transition introduces new challenges. Greater ownership over data and value requires stronger digital literacy. Individuals must understand how to manage their digital identity, protect their assets, and navigate decentralized systems. Educational institutions may also need to adapt, integrating new forms of credentialing and collaborating with emerging technologies.

Despite these challenges, the direction is clear. The digital economy is moving away from a model centered on attention toward one built on ownership, trust, and long-term value. For the education sector, this represents both a disruption and an opportunity.

In the coming years, the most successful learners and educators will not be those who simply attract the most views, but those who can build systems that demonstrate consistent, verifiable outcomes. Skills will matter more than signals, and reputation will become a measurable asset rather than an abstract concept.

Ultimately, this evolution redefines what it means to learn and to teach in the digital age. Education is no longer just about access to information—it is about the ability to transform knowledge into lasting value.

Citation

Ume, I. S., Onwuchekwe, S. I., Onuchukwu, G., & Obi, C. C. (2026). Challenges of Community Reentry for the Geriatric Inmate Population of Onitsha Correctional Centre, Anambra State. Think India Quarterly, 29(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i11.10705

Ignatius SundayUme^1; Si.ume@coou.edu.ng; https://orcid.org:000900618459479,

Stanley IkennaOnwuchekwe²; si.onwuchekwe@coou.edu.ng: https://orcid.org/0009

0004-0330-1770,

Greg Onuchukwu³_; greg.onuchukwu@federalpolyoko.edu.ng,https://orcid.org: 0009-0005-1713-9855,

Charity Chioma Obi⁴; charity.obi@federalpolyoko.edu.ng:https://orcid.org: 0009_0003_1770_6894

^1, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam, Anambra State, Nigeria

^2, Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam, Anambra State, Nigeria

^3-4, Department of Social Sciences, School of General Studies^,  Federal Polytechnic Oko, Anambra State, Nigeria

Corresponding Author: Stanley Ikenna Onwuchekwe, email; si.onwuchekwe@coou.edu.ng ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0330-1770, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra State, Nigeria

Abstract

Geriatric inmates upon release form the correctional center face severe community reentry challenges, driven primarily by profound social stigma and exclusion, family abandonment, poor health, and lack of financial resources. This study examines Challenges of Community Reentry for the Geriatric Inmate Population of Onitsha Correctional Centre, Anambra State. The research adopted reintegration theory as theoretical framework. The study revealed that geriatric inmates face significant community re-entry barriers which include; stigmatization, homelessness, poor access to healthcare, lack of social and financial support, etc. The study concludes that without deliberate, age-specific interventions, geriatric inmates upon release from correctional centres are likely to face serious challenges which will make their re-entry into their community a herculean task for them. It therefore recommends that the Nigerian Correctional Service should establish transitional housing schemesand geriatric-specific healthcare access programs for geriatric inmates to address the pressing issues of homelessness and medical neglect post-release, amongst others.

Keywords; Community Reentry, Geriatric Inmate, Ex-offenders, Prisons, Correctional service

1. INTRODUCTION

Every constituted body is made with a general and specific function in mind, and the relevance of such body is always measured by its ability to fulfill its expected role (Onwuchekwe, Okafor & Madu, 2020). The prison system (or correctional service system) is a crucial component of a nation’s penal institutions, serving as the primary mechanism for securely confining individuals who have been convicted of crimes or are awaiting trial (Ajah&Nweke, 2017). It is a critical segment of the criminal justice system (Aboki, 2007). Ideally, the aim of putting somebody in prison or correctional centre among others is to help the person imbibe new ways of life, hopefully to get reintegrated into society. Prisons or correctional centers are therefore designed to provide a secure and safe place for individuals who have been convicted of a crime, with the hope of rehabilitation and reintegration into society. Historically, imprisonment has evolved as a more humane alternative to other forms of punitive measures, accommodating offenders within structured environments designed for behavioral correction (Feral, 2002). Modern prisons according to Giddens (1991) have their origins not in the jails and dungeons of former times but in workhouses (often referred to as “hospitals’’).  However despite a prison’s intended rehabilitative function, Idowu and Muhammed (2019); Mohammad (2017) identifies several challenges affecting correctional centers in Nigeria. These include insufficient feeding, inadequate rehabilitation facilities and programs, poor working conditions, overcrowding/congestion, and the failure to separate inmates based on their specific needs. Also, lack of proper planning and provision for geriatric inmates is another big challenge that faces the correctional centers in Nigeria.  Most correctional centers in Nigeria are designed only for young and active inmates. For most geriatric inmates they struggle to copy with difficulties in the correctional centres such as long distances, the stairs, top bunks, and dimly lit, cold, or damp environments.

No doubt the challenges faced by geriatric inmates have become an impediment to their full and proper reentry into their communities. Davis et al (2012) noted that the prison environment is markedly different from mainstream society. Therefore, when being released, ex-convicts are plunged into an environment that is quite different from that of the prison and they struggle to cope. Furthermore, given the dynamic and ever-changing nature of society, ex-offenders who spend long periods in prison are released into an environment that is very different from their former environment before imprisonment. This appears to pose a serious challenge for their smooth reintegration process ((Onwuchekwe, Ibekwe, Ezeh, &Okpala, 2023). Osayi (2015) noted that Nigerian prison has proved dysfunctional, because rather than reconciling the offender with the social order and its laws, the prison has been a center for the dissemination and exchange of criminal influences and ideas, and has usually rendered the prison processed offenders unable to re-integrate into the society.

The reentry of geriatric inmates into the community presents a more complex challenge due to their advanced age, declining health, and lack of social and financial support (Ajah&Nweke, 2017). Also, most geriatric offenders suffer from community rejection upon release from correctional center.  According to Lindsey and Beach (2002), individuals do not respond to their environment rather, they respond to the meanings to which they ascribe to social events through their collective sharing of meanings through symbols. Through human interactions within their milieus, they determine what is important and what is not important for them (Nwosu, Abunike, Onwuchekwe &Onuchukwu, 2022). When individuals have the perception that ex-offenders are criminals, they tend to be more reserved in dealing and accommodating them within their environment. Most geriatric inmates upon release form the correctional center face severe community reentry challenges, driven primarily by profound social stigma and exclusion, family abandonment, poor health, and lack of financial resources. In fact, the reintegration of discharged geriatric offenders is often hindered by community perceptions of them as unrepentant criminals. Most of them are denied decent accommodation even in their family houses leading to homelessness. For Onwuchekwe et al., (2023) the manner in which marginalized members of a society is perceived or treated in social interaction seems to shape their wellbeing and subsequent actions. Most geriatric inmates often perceived as evildoers by community members face challenges of accessing genuine community-based support and social welfare upon release from correctional centre.  Some of them suffer from loss of familial ties which leaves them isolated and abandoned. There are also instances where some of them are denied access to their personal assets, which has equally resulted cases of extreme poverty among them.  Ajah&Nweke (2017) observes that the reintegration challenges faced by ex-convicts are largely shaped by the perceptions held by communities and society at large, which significantly hinder their ability to secure employment post-incarceration. In Nigeria today, it is common practice for employers to discriminate against individuals with prior criminal convictions, thereby reducing their chances of securing stable employment.

Bebbington et al., (2021) noted that recently released offenders suffer from negative mental health effects due to a lack of a support system and the resources required for reintegration into the community.  Geriatric offenders often grapple with severe health challenges, including chronic illnesses, physical disabilities, and cognitive impairments. Studies reveal that approximately 40% of incarcerated individuals aged 55 and above suffer from cognitive impairments, making it difficult for them to navigate post-incarceration life without structured support. The lack of accessible healthcare services upon release further compounds their struggles, leaving them vulnerable to health deterioration, depression, and premature mortality. The case of the Onitsha Correctional Centre in Anambra State highlights the urgent need for structured reintegration programs tailored to the geriatric inmate population. Many geriatric inmates face severe barriers in accessing post-release support services. Given these challenges, there is a critical need to assess the existing community reentry mechanisms and develop policies that will address the unique needs of geriatric inmates.

2.      Conceptual Framework

 Concept of Geriatric Inmate

According to the Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) (2011), a functional criterion for older incarcerated adults is 50 years of age or older. Grant (1999) and Hayes et al., (2012) posited that ageing is thought to begin at 50 in the prison population as opposed to 60 in the general population.  Human Rights Watch (2012) noted that prison life may be difficult for everyone, but it can be especially difficult for those whose bodies and brains may be affected by changes associated with ageing and may depend more on others and may lose some or all of their autonomy due to ageing. Help Age International (2011) asserts that as we age, our rights do not alter. In addition, as people age, they encounter greater obstacles to involvement, depend more on others, and lose some or all of their autonomy. A geriatric inmate is referred to as an incarcerated person who experiences accelerated aging due to poor health, lifestyle, and the harsh conditions of prison confinement. Geriatric inmates often have higher rates of chronic illnesses (hypertension, diabetes, heart disease) compared to their younger counterparts and the general population. They frequently suffer from geriatric syndromes such as cognitive impairment/dementia, mobility issues, incontinence, falls, and sensory loss (hearing/vision).  Older incarcerated persons also experience isolation and prejudice because their unique medical, social, and educational requirements are not being served (Prison Reform Trust, 2011).

Olaoye (2025) observed that apart from a strong indication of an increasing number of elderly prisoners, there is strong evidence that geriatric inmates in correctional institutions are exposed to a high burden of physical and mental health problems. Up to 90% have at least one moderate or severe medical condition, with more than 50% having three or more forms of health condition (Public Health England, 2017; Olaoye, 2025). Onwuchekwe, et al (2023) noted that irrespective of the circumstances that surround social existence of certain individuals, all human beings aspire to live a fulfilling, satisfying and meaningful life. The author argued that offenders released from correctional institutions could sometimes be confronted by socio-cultural, economic and personal challenges that tend to become obstacles to a crime free lifestyle and re entry process. Some of these challenges might be as a result of the consequences of incarceration and the difficulty of transiting back into the community (Ajala & Oguntuase, 2011; Onwuchekwe, et al, 2023).  Ossayi (2015) noted that in Europe and America, a number of after-care initiatives such as Reintegrative Confinement, Structured Transition, Intensive After-care, and Community Correction which include Halfway Houses, Furloughs, Probation and Parole have been developed and implemented to ease the transition problems of released offenders. In Nigeria, the author argues that only while lip-service is paid to the existence of after-care services, also, provision for community based corrections is apparently not in existence.

The issue of geriatric inmates in correctional facilities has emerged as a significant concern, as the aging prison population continues to rise. Many correctional institutions were originally designed for younger offenders, leaving elderly inmates in environments that do not cater to their specific needs. Research highlights the growing medical, psychiatric, and social challenges that this population faces, as well as the policy implications and potential solutions to address these issues. It is concerning that older inmate in Nigeria correctional centers face difficult reentry challenges compared to their younger counterparts. Many geriatric ex-offenders are released into communities without access to stable housing, making them highly vulnerable to homelessness. Research indicates that formerly incarcerated individuals are ten times more likely to experience homelessness compared to the general population, with older adults being at an even higher risk. Asokhia and Agbonluae, 2013; Chukwudi (2012) observed that in Nigeria, social welfare systems are limited; the absence of structured reintegration programs exacerbates the struggles of elderly ex-inmates.  Many of them lack financial resources, making it difficult to secure accommodation or afford basic needs upon release.

Concept of Community Re-entry

According to Okah et al. (2024) community re-entry is the process of facilitating a transition or movement of an offender who has completed their sentence, and rehabilitation programs in a correctional institution back to their family, environment, and community where they belong. Community reentry is the process by which ex-convicts transition back into society and gain acceptance from key stakeholders, including families, employers, and communities (Idowu&Odivwri, 2019). For Laub & Sampson (2003) community reintegration is the process of transitioning from incarceration to the community, adjusting to life outside of prison or jail, and attempting to maintain a crime-free lifestyle.  Community reentry is frequently described as reintegration because it involves preparing not only the ex-offender but also the family, community, and victims for the transition process (Stravinskas, 2009).  It is one of the most important indicators that determine the success of previously incarcerated individuals’ rehabilitation. It contributes to helping one’s adaptation to life adversities in the society.

Shajobi-Ibikunle (2014) and Aniekan (2016) observed that the common perception among communities is that little or nothing could be done to rehabilitate or change the behaviour of ex-offenders who they see as dangerous individuals. Thus, formerly incarcerated individuals face significant challenges during community re-entry. These barriers include stigma, difficulty in finding employment, limited access to housing, and lack of educational opportunities (Arevalo, 2020). Many re-entering individuals struggle to access quality re-entry programs, particularly those that address substance abuse and mental health needs. The financial burden associated with reintegration is also a major obstacle, disproportionately affecting marginalized groups, including people of colour and women. Social networks and family relationships further complicate re-entry, as individuals with a history of incarceration often experience strained relationships with loved ones, which can impact their emotional and financial stability (Weill, 2016). In Nigeria; prisoners are often released without adequate preparation for life outside the prison system. Upon release, they are left to find housing, employment, and basic necessities on their own, often with little to no support. Many ex-convicts experience isolation and alienation due to the absence of transitional case managers who could guide them through this critical period. As a result, they struggle to rebuild their lives and frequently resort to crime out of necessity (Petersilia, 2003; Stravinskas, 2009).

Studies highlight the need for comprehensive discharge planning that includes mental health services, substance abuse treatment, and access to healthcare (Luther et al., 2011). Without proper support, many individuals return to behaviors that led to their incarceration in the first place, increasing their risk of recidivism. According to Iremeka, F.U., Eseadi, C., Ezenwaji, C. et al (2021) rational emotive-behaviour therapy (REBT) has shown great promise in helping students manage mental distress. Such therapy can as well be adopted to address the need of geriatric inmates. Also, programs that integrate healthcare services with re-entry planning have been shown to improve long-term outcomes by addressing the root causes of criminal behavior and providing individuals with the tools they need to reintegrate successfully.

• Theoretical framework        

Reintegration Theory

Reintegration theory focuses on the process of re-entering individuals primarily ex-offenders back into society by restoring their social, economic, and psychosocial ties. It emphasizes a transition from a marginalized status to civilian or law-abiding life, requiring community acceptance and the reduction of stigma to lower recidivism rates. Muntingh (2005) noted that the rationale for reintegrating offender is based on two moral premises. Firstly, it is better for people to be in harmony with one another in their community, and secondly, wherever harmony and community are absent, they should be actively pursued. The author further noted that punitive approach stigmatises and belittles offenders. This results in a further breach of community and disruption of harmony in society. To this end, reform and reintegration of offenders should always be the ultimate aim of incarceration. In application therefore, reintegration theory tries to point to societal role in crime perpetration and dissuade the blame game of the community. It perceives the society as an accomplice in crime commission and therefore must help in treating and rehabilitating the offenders, especially in ensuring that they reintegrate successfully (Onwuchekwe et al, 2023).  

Some of the conditions that breed criminals whom many societies create are discrimination against ex-convicts by community members and the assumption that upon released from correctional facilities, the ex-convicts may still go back to reoffending. Many geriatric inmates upon release from correctional centres suffer from community avoidance and stigmatization.  The sense of not being welcomed anymore as part and parcel of their community depresses them the more. Therefore, for reintegration theorists, communities should be open minded and show willingness to welcome geriatric inmates back without any form of reservation. They argue that it is only through this that the gains of rehabilitation received by at the correctional service centres would be sustained.

• Conclusion and recommendation

Geriatric inmates encounter significant community reentry challenges upon release from correctional center due to family and community abandonment, rejection and stigmatization, etc. They are most often stereotyped, labeled, and discriminated against by their own family and community. The stigmas they suffer most times erode their self-esteem and weaken their social cohesion.  In most communities in Nigeria, ex-geriatric offenders are most often judged by their past crimes by community members. They are rejected and excluded from participating in key community activities. Most of them are pushed to the margins of society, unable to meet basic survival needs upon their release from the correctional centre.  Ahmed (2015) further supports this, noting that harsh prison conditions and societal rejection create a cycle where ex-inmates, especially the vulnerable ones. Indeed, most elderly ex-inmates lacked the necessary support to be able to integrate proper into their community.

Most geriatric inmates of Onitsha correctional centre often leave the centre without having accessed any meaningful training or rehabilitation that will them integrate into their community. Although this study found that some reintegration programs actually exist, their impact on geriatric inmates is moderate and uneven. Idowu and Odivwri (2019) shares this concern in their study which found that Nigerian correctional facilities often fall short in delivering true rehabilitation, leading to high recidivism rates. Indeed, the geriatric inmates are often overlooked when reintegration services are designed by correctional service centers in Nigeria. They do not actually benefit because most of the programs target younger or more able-bodied inmates. Many of geriatric inmates who need healthcare navigation, housing assistance, and psychological support usually don’t get them.  In the light of the above, this study concludes that without deliberate, age-specific interventions, geriatric inmates upon release from correctional centres are likely to face serious challenges which will make their proper re-entry into their community a herculean task for them.

Therefore, this paper recommends that:

1.      The Nigerian Correctional Service should establish transitional housing schemes and geriatric-specific healthcare access programs for elderly ex-inmates to address the pressing issues of homelessness and medical neglect post-release.

• Correctional facilities like Onitsha should revamp their rehabilitation approach by incorporating age-sensitive vocational training, counseling, and reentry planning that begins early in incarceration and continues post-release, specifically designed for elderly inmates.
• Communities should be sensitized to accept ex-geriatric offenders back without reservations of any kind.
• Policymakers should consider adopting a National Geriatric Reintegration Strategy (NGRS) that will target interventions such as micro-grants for ex-geriatric inmates and community reentry programs that will pair ex- ex-geriatric inmates with trained community volunteers.

          

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Citation

Onwuchekwe, S. I., Ibekwe, C. C., Ume, I. S., Agbodike, M. C., & Onuchukwu, G. (2026). Artificial Intelligence Technologies and the Control of Oil Theft in Warri South-West Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/6

                                        Stanley Ikenna Onwuchekwe

                                 Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

                                Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University,

                                Igbariam, Anambra State, Nigeria

                                 Email: si.onwuchekwe@coou.edu.ng:

https://orcid.org/00090004-0330-1770,

                                         Ibekwe, Christopher Chimaobi

                            Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences,

                             Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria

                                           Email: ccibekwe@aauekpoma.edu.ng

,

                                              Ignatius SundayUme

                              Department of Sociologyand Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences,

                         Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Igbariam, Anambra State

                         Email^:  Si.ume@coou.edu.ng; https://orcid.org:000900618459479

                                              Agbodike, Mmesoma Chinecherem

                              Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

                                Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University,

                                Igbariam, Anambra State, Nigeria

                               Email: mc.agbodike@coou.edu.ng https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1182-1714

                                                  Greg Onuchukwu

                             Department of Social Sciences, School of General Studies^, 

                                      Federal Polytechnic Oko, Anambra State, Nigeria

                                   Email: greg.onuchukwu@federalpolyoko.edu.ng

                                               https://orcid.org: 0009-0005-1713-9855

Abstract

Oil theft in Nigeria has been a daunting challenge to meeting the approved 1.71 million barrels production per day and has led to the loss of over ten billion US dollars in foreign earnings. This paper examined artificial intelligence technologies and the control of oil theft in Warri South-West LGA of Delta State, Nigeria. Queer ladder theory was employed in explaining the complex dynamics around oil theft in the area. Mixed-methods research design was adopted. The target population was 22,234 and the sample size is 1,250 residents. This is in addition to five interviews that were conducted. Data were collected using structured questionnaire and in-depth interviews (IDI) guide. Quantitative data were analysed using percentage, frequency, charts, and multi-nominal logistic regression, while qualitative data were thematically analysed. Findings revealed that there was a high level of awareness amongst residents on AI enabled technologies used in controlling oil theft in their communities. It also showed that AI-powered devices, such as drones, satellites, CCTV and community-based mechanisms were used in the control of oil theft in the area. It equally indicated that these technologies are potentially useful, but their application was inadequate, leaving respondents skeptical of their effectiveness. It again showed that there was no significant positive relationship between respondents’ occupational group and their awareness of AI enabled technological tools for detecting oil theft. It concluded that application of AI technologies is sacrosanct in curbing oil theft, especially when synergized and blended with indigenous knowledge. Recommendations were made in line with the findings.

Keywords: Artificial intelligence, technology, oil theft, pipeline vandalisation.

Introduction

Nigeria is one of the largest oil producing countries in the world, yet it faces daunting challenges of crude oil theft. Criminal cartels and organized groups steal a substantial portion of the country’s daily oil production output.  The country loses billions of dollars annually due to stolen oil, and it significantly affects national revenue and economic stability. Available statistics show that between January and July 2022, Nigeria lost an average of 437,000 barrels of crude oil to criminals on daily basis, which amounted to about 10 billion US dollars within the seven months period (Yusuf, 2022). This has equally resulted in the shortfall of supply of crude oil below the allotted 1.71 million barrels per day to Nigeria by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). The report further indicated that Nigeria was only producing about 50% of OPEC’s approved target for the country (Obiezu, 2022). This is not unconnected with the prevalence of oil theft in the oil producing communities in the Niger Delta.

The criminality associated with oil theft has indeed become a drain on Nigeria’s economy. Oil theft no doubt has triggered and perpetuated a circle of poverty and disillusionment among ordinary Nigerians, while enriching only a few elitists group and those involved in the illegal business. For most members of oil producing communities, oil resources are seen as a curse because their lives have not been impacted positively by it. There is lack of basic amenities such as pipe borne waters, electricity, good roads, and employment opportunities for teaming youth in the oil rich region (Akpan, Ufomba, Ibewke & Ufomba, 2017). Warri Southwest, which is part of the Niger Delta region is rife with civil unrest, militancy, social disorder, and disruption of the flow of crude oil supplies to illegal refineries, leading to production shortfall (Enuoh & Inyang, 2014). According to Onwuchekwe, Okafor and Madu (2020), the Federal Government of Nigeria has not been able to address most of the challenges dwindling the growth and prosperity of the area.

Evidence has shown that oil theft is not peculiar to any society, but a pervasive occurrence in many producing nations. In 2013, the Algerian Energy Authority reported losing US$1.3 billion a year as a result of fuel smuggling to neighboring countries (Al-Makhifi 2013). In 2015, during the Syrian civil war, the Islamic State of Iraq and Al-Sham (ISIS) made US$40 million a month from selling stolen crude oil to brokers. Some of the crude oil was refined into low-grade fuel and was smuggled into Turkey. ISIS sold most of its oil to the Assad regime, despite being its arch-enemy (Ralby, Ralby & Soud, 2017). This suggests a link between illegal access to oil and the funding of terrorism. Similarly, Russia’s state-owned investment bank, VTB Capital estimated that in 2013 the country’s oil companies were lost between US$1.8 to US$3.5 billion annually to oil theft (Khazov- Cassia, 2021). According to Ralby (2017), three million litres of fuel, valued at US$1.2 billion per annum are smuggled from Malaysia to Thailand through the land alone.

Onwuchekwe, Ezeah and Ikezue (2025) noted that oil deposits are found in different regions in Nigeria, but the issue of theft and lack of adequate control keep leading to losses.  It does appear that the sustained oil theft syndrome in the Niger Delta, especially Warri Southwest is due to lack of suitable artificial intelligence (AI) enabled technologies. There is no doubt that lack of AI applications has emboldened oil thieves in the Niger Delta. Jia (2024) observed that non-deployment of modern and efficient technologies to achieve real-time aerial surveillance of oil facilities in the area have enabled oil theft to blossom.  Similarly, Mallo (2024) noted that smart technologies, such as Fiber Optic Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) are critical in detecting and classifying third party interference on oil installations.  This suggests that AI enabled devices can actually prevent oil theft incidents before they occur.

A number of researches have been carried out on oil theft but none focused on issues of AI in the control of theft in Warri Southwest LGA, Delta State. While Eric and Oluwagbenga (2017) examined the impact of oil theft, illegal bunkering and pipeline vandalism on Nigeria’s economy between 2015 and 2016, Odalonu (2015) assessed the upsurge of oil theft and illegal bunkering in the region. Similar studies are either limited in contents, scope or forms, or centred on theoretical analysis of the issue. A preliminary scoping review on few academic databases including Science Direct, PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science showed that AI in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA, Delta State have not been reported in literature. This presents a gap in knowledge and it is against the backdrop that this paper examines artificial intelligence technologies and their application in the control of oil theft in Warri South-West LGA of Delta State, Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this paper is to examine artificial intelligence technologies and their application in the control of oil theft in Warri South-West LGA of Delta State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are;

1. To ascertain respondents’ level of awareness about AI enabled technologies in controlling oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA.
2. To identify AI surveillance technologies used in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA.
3. To ascertain respondents’ assessment of the effectiveness of AI enabled communication technologies in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA.

Hypothesis

1. There is a significant positive relationship between respondents’ occupational group and their awareness of AI enabled technological tools for detecting oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA.

Review of Theoretical Literature

Conceptualization of Oil Theft

Oil theft can be referred to in various terms as, oil bunkering, fuel scooping, and pipeline vandalism. It is a highly lucrative criminal activity, usually taking place in the creeks of the Niger Delta, where the pipelines are interconnected like a grid. This hazardous process involves illegally tapping into the pipelines and extracting crude oil (Onuoha, 2008). Crude oil theft, also known as illegal oil bunkering, is the illicit activity or unlawfully appropriating crude oil from pipelines or flow stations, as well as the unauthorized inclusion of additional crude oil into valid cargos without proper documentation or accountability (Asuni, 2009). Oil bunkering is commonly accomplished by breaching pipelines and tapping into them (Adegbite, 2013).

Crude oil theft is the unlawful carting away of crude oil or sabotaging of crude oil facilities through illegal bunkering, pipeline vandalism, fuel scooping, illegal refining and transportation and oil terrorism (Akpan et al, 2017). To Obasi (2011) oil theft in Nigeria is a generic term encompassing not only unauthorized loading of ships but also all acts involving diversion and smuggling of oil. A report by Stakeholders’ Democracy Network indicates that oil is being stolen at an industrial scale in the Niger Delta region (Boris, 2016).

According to Ayanruioh (2013:2), oil theft is the process through which crude oil or refined petroleum products are illegally siphoned from pipelines and sold to interested dealers / buyers waiting on the high sea or the unscrupulous individuals. Crude oil theft is often linked to organized crime, militant financing, and State corruption (NEITI, 2023).While traditionally analyzed as an economic crime, emerging studies emphasize its role in exacerbating insecurity (Obi, 2022). Unlike conventional theft, crude oil theft operates through a complex web involving political actors, security operatives, and transnational networks (Ibaba, 2021).

Furthermore, Saje and Abubakar (2023) conceptualized oil theft to mean illegal diversion and trade of either crude or refined petroleum oil by criminals for self-enrichment against the judicious exploitation of oil for revenue generation by the government. Romsom (2022) noted that these thefts are sometimes in small-scale, but the high profits in combination with the ability to penetrate multiple parts of the supply network, create incentives for criminals to expand their operations.

Artificial Intelligence Technologies and Oil Theft

AI is computer applications that simulate human intelligence or imagination to think, monitor, detect, and respond swiftly to threats of crime (David, Mustapha & Abubakar, 2025; Ikiyei & Amassomowei, 2025). The application of AI-enabled technologies in mitigating oil theft is sacrosanct.  For instance, AI-powered drones and satellite imaging can be used to monitor oil pipelines and detect any anomaly or unauthorised activities in real time. By analysing the data collected through these technologies, authorities can identify hot spots of potential theft and take proactive measures.  Bello, Odor, Busari, Ali, Girei, Alabi and Stephen (2025)noted thatAI offers a transformative solution to the challenges posed by oil theft. The authors observed that unlike traditional methods, AI-powered systems can provide real-time monitoring, predictive analysis, and automated threat detection. It also has the capacity to analyze oil flow in the pipeline and identify irregularities.

According to Ibrahim (2022), addressing the problems leading oil theft in the Niger Delta region requires high-breed technologies. Adelowo and Oladele (2022) noted that an anti-theft tracking system, such as pressure sensors can detect if pipelines and their contents were tampered. Similarly, it has been revealed that smart-pipeline technologies, such as fiber-optic sensors can detect leakages and compromise on oil pipelines. Adesuji (2026) argued that AI techniques such as machine learning, computer vision, neural networks, and predictive analytics can process vast amounts of data from sensors, drones, and supervisory control systems to detect anomalies, predict potential failures, and recommend optimal maintenance strategies. The author maintained that, given the growing complexity of Nigeria’s oil and gas operations, traditional manual and periodic inspection methods are no longer adequate. Therefore the adoption of AI enhanced technologies, such as drones, and remote sensing remains sacrosanct in dealing with oil theft.

AI Enhanced Technologies and Communities Mitigating Measures to Oil Theft

Wizor and Wali (2020) examined crude oil theft and oil companies-host communities’ conundrum in the Niger Delta. The study revealed that technological installations, such as satellite systems, CCTV and other digital instruments were some strategies adopted in monitoring activities of security men and criminals in the catchment areas. This suggests that not just that criminals are being monitored, but the compromise of State actors is not ruled out. This informs why activities of security personnel are being scrutinised closely using AI enabled devices. Similarly, Adelowo and Oladele (2022) examined the effectiveness of artificial intelligence and internet of things (IoT) in curbing oil theft in Nigeria.  The study revealed that AI and the internet of things have been incorporated into Nigeria’s oil industry to tackle oil theft. It further posited that technologies, such as satellites, sensors, and communication devices are effective AI-powered devices in combating oil theft in the country.  

Bello et al (2025) examined AI-assisted crude oil bunkering and illegal theft detection in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. The results showed there is application of AI in oil theft prevention and detection via machine learning, computer vision, and predictive analytics. The study submitted that AI has revolutionalised monitoring and control of oil and gas infrastructures in Nigeria. Another study by Adedoyin (2026) on artificial intelligence applications in pipeline monitoring and maintenance for sustainable oil and gas operations in Nigeria revealed that integration of AI-powered technologies has improved pipeline monitoring, maintenance, and overall system reliability.

Furthermore, Akaenye and Onosakponome (2023) examined youth restiveness and the challenges of oil theft in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The findings revealed that the government’s amnesty programme and engagement of ex-militants in pipelines surveillance helped to address restiveness. It also indicated that community engagement and access to the benefits from oil revenue mitigated oil theft in the area. Similarly, Gimah and Kobani (2024) made an assessment of efforts in discouraging crude oil theft in selected communities in Rivers State. The study found that community strategies for mitigating oil theft in the area included; entrepreneurship education, peace education, human rights advocacy, value-reorientation, agricultural extension and environmental education. However, the upsurge in oil theft in recent times clearly suggests that success has not been achieved.  

Theoretical Orientation: Queer Ladder Theory

Queer ladder theory was developed by the American Sociologist, Daniel Bell (1919-2011) in an attempt to explain the instrumental essence of organized crime as a desperate means of economic empowerment and social climbing (Okoli & Agada, 2014). The theory’s basic assumption is that organized crime is an instrumental behavior and a means to an end. It is an instrument of social climbing and/or socio-economic advancement. It is also a means to accumulate wealth and build power (Okoli & Orinya, 2013).

The theory offers an in-depth understanding of the complex power dynamics, resistances, and community resilience towards oil theft in Warri Southwest. What this theory entails is that organized crime thrives in contexts where the government’s capacity to dictate, sanction, deter and control crime is poor; where public corruption is endemic; and where prospects for legitimate livelihood opportunities are slim (Okoli & Orinya, 2013). In such situations, the motivation to indulge in crime will be high, while deterrence from criminal living is low. In other words, the benefits of committing a crime surpass the costs and/or risks. 

In understanding oil theft in Warri Southwest through the lens of this theory, it points to different angles. One angle is the oil theft activities that are being carried out by organized criminal groups and being facilitated by multi-national corporations and corrupt government officials, who use instrumentality or privileges of the State to indulge in illegal oil activities, such as smuggling of crude oil.  On the other hand, the natives who are struggling to make ends meet sees the illegal sale of oil as a means of survival and also perpetrate this crime. It is also important to highlight that despite being rich in oil resources, poverty rate has remained high within the area. This is due to the systemic alienation or marginalization of the oil producing communities. Thus, from the lens of queer ladder theory, oil theft on the part of the community members could be seen as a response to marginalization and economic disparity, which creates an incentive or means of survival.

Materials and Methods

Mixed-methods research design was adopted. The choice of this design is that there is a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. The general or universal population was one hundred and thirty-three thousand, three hundred and fifty-one (133,351) residents of Warri Southwest LGA of Delta State, while the target population was twenty-two thousand, two hundred and thirty-four (22,234) persons which comprised men group, women group, youth association and members of the traditional rulers council in the area. The sample size is 1,250 and it was statistically generated using Fisher, Laing, Stoeckel and Townsend (1998) formula. The choice of this category of persons is because they are adults and were informed on oil activities in their communities. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted on notable individuals in the area, such as a Civil Defence Officer, a Vigilante leader, a Naval Officer, a DSS personnel, and a Civil Society Organization member. The choice of these personalities was based on the fact that they are actively involved in the security and advocacy for proper oil resources management. Instruments for data collection were structured questionnaire and in-depth interviews (IDI) guide. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used in selecting the respondents. Quantitative data were analysed using percentage, frequency, bar and pie charts, while qualitative data were thematically analysed through extraction and interpretation of quotes. Hypothesis was tested using multi-nominal logistic regression model.

Results and Discussion

This study administered 1,250 copies of questionnaire, out of which 922 copies that were properly filled were retrieved and used for analysis. This represent 74% response rate and was considered adequate for analysis. Findings are extensively discussed and related to the studies reviewed, thereby highlighting areas of convergence and divergence. The analyses are carried out in line with the specific objectives as follows;  

Analysis of Objective One

The respondents’ level of awareness about AI enabled technologies in the control of oil theft in their communities was sought for. In doing this, the respondents were asked to indicate whether or not they were aware of theses technological devices. Their responses are presented in figure 1;

Fig 1. Respondents’ opinion on the awareness of AI technological tools used in controlling oil theft in their communities

Field Survey, 2025

The quantitative findings of figure 1 reveals that majority of the respondents (66.2%) had awareness of AI enabled technological tools being used to detect  and control oil theft in their communities in Warri Southwest LGA. By contrast, 23.2% indicated they were not aware of such tools, while 10.6% expressed uncertainty. These results suggest that although awareness of AI enabled technological interventions is relatively widespread, there remains a significant minority who either lack knowledge or feel uncertain about the existence of such measures.

Furthermore, thematic evidence of the IDIs provides nuanced insights into the awareness gap. While the State security personnel interviewed demonstrated a more detailed familiarity with specific AI enabled technologies, the vigilante member reflected a more general or uncertain awareness. For example, an interviewee who is a Civil Defence Officer had this to say:

I am aware that presently the federal government has put some technology measures… just like when you are installing… CCTV cameras and using drones and all that, some of these measures have been used to send signal to security agents about the activities of oil thieves in this place (Civil Defense Officer, Female, 40,  Kurutie, Warri Southwest LGA).

This aligns closely with the 66.2% who indicated awareness, but also shows that knowledge may be more conceptual than technical. Another interviewee reinforced this by referencing newer technological systems:

“There is now an emergence of hybrid AI technologies… CTV cameras are also being put in place to safeguard all these pipelines” (Naval Officer, Male, 36, Kurutie, Delta State).

Such statements reflect both awareness and confidence in specific AI monitoring tools, echoing the patterns captured quantitatively. By contrast, the community-based perspective conveyed more uncertainty, mirroring the 23.2% who reported no awareness and the 10.6% who were unsure. As one interviewee put it:

“If government see any technology that will help, it will be good… cameras can be mounted inside bush… or if they give us drones” (Vigilante Member, Male, 50, Oporoza, Warri Southwest LGA, Delta State).

This submission suggests openness to technological solutions but a lack of concrete knowledge about what systems are currently deployed. These data highlight that differences matter in terms of perspective and awareness about technologies adopted in detecting oil theft. The State actors demonstrated greater specificity, mentioning technologies such as CCTV and Combat Information Centers, while the other category of interviewees provided a more general perspective, highlighting uncertainty and some level of community awareness without technical detail. Generally, the findings indicate that there is a high level of awareness amongst residents of Warri Southwest on AI enabled technologies used in the control of oil theft in the area.

Analysis of Objective Two

The AI surveillance technologies used in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA are analysed hereunder. In doing this, the respondents were first asked to outline the AI surveillance technologies known to them in the control of oil theft in their communities and their responses are presented in figure 2;

Fig. 2. Respondents’ views on AI enabled communication technologies used to detect oil theft in their communities.

Field Survey, 2025

Figure 2 shows that respondents identified a wide variety of AI enabled technologies employed in detecting or preventing oil theft in their areas. Pipeline surveillance drones were the most frequently reported (18.3%), followed by community-based reporting strategies (14.8%), smart metering and flow monitoring systems (14.6%), and satellite imagery with remote sensing (14.5%). In addition, acoustic leak detection sensors (10.8%), fibre-optic pipeline monitoring systems (10.6%), and aerial patrols using helicopters or aircraft (10.5%) were other technological tools identified. However, while a smaller proportion of the respondents (3.9%) showed that they lacked knowledge about the technologies in use, 2.0% mentioned other tools not captured in the questionnaire.

Furthermore, the respondents were asked to indicate other AI-powered surveillance technologies they considered applicable in the control of oil theft in their areas but were not captured in the questionnaire, and their opinion are presented in table 1:

Table 1: Respondents’ opinion on AI surveillance technologies used in oil theft control in their communities

Response Options	Response Analysis
	Frequency	Percent
Drones (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)	166	23.7%
CCTV cameras	140	21.4%
Satellite monitoring systems	173	15.4%
Motion sensors or ground-based detectors	120	10.7%
Security patrols using advanced monitoring equipment	169	15.1%
Not Sure	101	9.0%
Other	53	4.7%
Total	922	100.0%

Field Survey, 2025.

Table 1 identified several AI-powered surveillance technologies used in controlling oil theft in the study area. The most frequently selected AI enabled technologies were drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (23.7%) and CCTV cameras (21.4%). Satellite monitoring systems (15.4%) and security patrols equipped with advanced monitoring devices (15.1%) were also commonly reported. Motion sensors or ground-based detectors accounted for 10.7% response. In addition, 9.0% of the respondents indicated that they were not sure which AI enabled technologies were in use, while 4.7% cited other forms of surveillance devices. These results suggest that aerial and visual surveillance technologies, particularly drones and CCTV were the most widely recognized by respondents, while ground-based or less visible technologies appear to be less frequently reported. These findings suggest that oil theft detection and control efforts in Warri Southwest rely on a mix of advanced AI surveillance technologies and community-driven intelligence systems.

In addition to the quantitative results, IDIs evidence corroborates survey patterns. Interviewees in the security sector demonstrated familiarity with AI technologies. For instance, one interviewee expressed his opinion as follows;  

“We have what is called CIC, Combat Information Center. It is a hybrid AI enabled technology.. Inside the CIC, you will be able to see far inside the ship. It has area location tracker…satellite…tracking the whole environment. There’s also what is called IFF on board bigger ships. IFF means International Friend or Foe. If it is a ship that come to take our oil, the Nigeria Navy ship that has that IFF will send signal of that IFF, eh, identification of friend or foe. Once that thing goes to the ship and there was no respond, then the Nigeria Navy ship will know that, uh, that vessel is not a friendly vessel. Thereby, now from there, they can send the gun boat or patrol boat, Nigeria Navy patrol boats to the area to go and arrest the vessel” (Naval Officer, Male, 36, Kurutie, Delta State).

This aligns with the survey’s mention of AI satellite imagery and remote sensing (14.5%). Similarly, the transcripts reinforced the importance of drones, the single most frequently reported tool in the survey (18.3%). As one interviewee noted thus;  

“The use of CCTV and drones to secure oil pipeline instead of using human security have been useful. You know that the world has gone digital, um … Most oil-producing countries are using CCTVs, and drones to secure their oil pipelines. So the use of AI hybrid technology facilitates the emergence of optimal security, and protection in oil pipeline because you don’t need to be there to strike at the individuals who engage on this. You can track and strike from the control centre” (DSS Personnel, Male, 40, Okporoza, Warri Southwest LGA).

This submission reflects both the drone category and the 14.6% citing CCTV-style monitoring systems. To another interviewee, this is what he had to say;  

“AI video recording cameras can be useful… or government should give us drones… we think if they (drones) hover around this area, the people disturbing us and stealing our oil will be afraid. You will not see them again” (Civil Defense Officer, Female, 40, Kurutie, Warri Southwest LGA).

This submission again validates the strong emphasis on aerial surveillance in the quantitative findings. Beyond AI high-tech tools, the thematic data also highlights community-based intelligence and measures, resonating with the 14.8% who identified community-reporting strategies. The Vigilante leader who is one of the interviewees said;

“If these AI technologies you are talking about are made available to us, they will need to teach us, train us on how to carry and use them. We are ready to use technology to deal with this problem” (Vigilante Member, Male, 50, Okporoza, Warri Southwest  LGA).

This submission emphasizes the readiness and willingness of local actors in adopting AI technological systems to tackle the problem of oil theft in Warri Southwest. In summary, the quantitative and qualitative findings converge on the conclusion that the detection and control of oil theft in Warri Southwest relies on AI hybrid technologies, such as drones, satellites, and CCTV for real-time surveillance, alongside community-based mechanisms that provide local knowledge and rapid reporting. This triangulation underscores the role of both formal security infrastructures and grassroots involvement in addressing oil theft. These findings align with Wizor and Wali (2020) who reported that satellite systems, CCTV and other digital instruments were AI-aided devices used in monitoring oil theft in Niger Delta region.  

Analysis of Objective Three

The effectiveness of AI enabled communication technologies in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA was examined. In doing this, the respondents were asked to make their assessment on the effectiveness level of the devices and their opinions are presented in figure 3;

Fig. 3. Respondents’ views on perceived effectiveness of AI enabled communication technologies in reducing oil theft.

Field Survey, 2025.

Figure 3 shows mixed views regarding the effectiveness of AI enabled communication technologies in the control of oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA. The result reveals that majority of the respondents (36.0%) perceived these technologies as ineffective, and 27.6% also considered them to be very ineffective. In contrast, only 15.6% considered them effective, while a smaller fraction (3.5%) reported that they are very effective. This suggests that less than one-fifth of the overall respondents considered the devices to be effective. However, 17.2% of the respondents expressed a neutral position, implying lack of knowledge. In summary, the findings suggests that negative perceptions outweighed positive assessments, implying that most respondents were skeptical of the effectiveness of AI enabled communication technologies in addressing oil theft in their communities.

The qualitative data provide nuance insight to the survey results. While the interviewees acknowledged the potential of technology, they expressed skepticism about its current effectiveness, aligning with the respondents who rated it ineffective. For example, one interviewee considered AI enabled technologies to be having great usefulness, but expressed some reservations in their limitations:

“The technologies are good, and very, very effective in addressing oil theft, but you can hardly catch these guys if you don’t have intelligence report” (DSS Personnel, Male, 40, Okporoza, Warri Southwest LGA).

This submission reflects the survey’s minority (15.6%) who gave positive evaluations, while also highlighting the conditional nature of their perceived effectiveness. Another interviewee who is a member of Civil Society Organization (CSO) expressed her dissatisfaction in the effectiveness of the available technologies as follows:

“We need more technologies…the ones available here are obsolete…if the federal government can add more, it would help” (Civil Society Member, Female, 38, Kurutie, Warri Southwest LGA).

This submission points to the ineffectiveness of the technologies due to acute shortage and poor institutional presence in oil-producing communities. Similarly, a vigilante leader emphasized the perceived inefficiency of the AI enabled technological tools due to neglect and breakdowns. He was quoted as saying;

“Technology is good, but they hardly bring new ones to this place. Even the available ones are not in good condition and some have spoilt long ago” (Vigilante Member, Male, 50, Okporonza, Warri Southwest LGA).

This underscores both logistical failures and the consequences of poor maintenance culture, leading to inefficiency to technological tools in detecting and controlling oil theft in the area. The challenge was further reinforced by State security actors who stressed inefficiency of AI technological tools due to the mismatch between their capacities and the sophistication of the tools. One of the interviewees recounted thus:

“We have been trying to use them…but no proper training, no support… how can we operate them without proper training on how to use them? I must say we are struggling to use the technologies due to lack of training and support” (Civil Defense Officer, Female, 40, Kurutie, Warri Southwest LGA).

These perspectives reinforce why respondents overwhelmingly perceive AI technologies as ineffective: even where systems exist, they are underfunded, unevenly deployed, or not accompanied by sufficient training for local actors. Taken together, the quantitative and qualitative evidence converge to show that while surveillance technologies are recognized and seen as potentially useful, their current implementation is inadequate, leaving communities skeptical of their actual impact. However, it is important to note that the strong majority perception of the ineffectiveness is not a rejection of the technologies, but a reflection of gaps in resourcing, deployment, and integration with community-based security efforts. This finding slightly corroborates that of Adelowo and Oladele (2022) who noted that AI-powered devices are effective in combating oil theft.

Test of Hypothesis

There is a significant positive relationship between respondents’ occupational group and their awareness of AI enabled technological tools for detecting oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA. In testing this hypothesis, the respondents’ occupational group and their awareness of AI enabled technological tools for detecting oil theft were cross-tabulated, and tested using multi-nominal logistic regression. The result is presented in table 2;

Table2: Model fit statistics for multinomial logistic regression predicting awareness of oil theft detection technologies by occupation

Statistic	Value	Df	P
Model χ² (Final vs. Intercept Only)	3.817	12	.987
-2 Log Likelihood (Final)	65.892	–	–
Cox & Snell R²	.004	–	–
Nagelkerke R²	.004	–	–
McFadden R²	.002	–	–

Field Survey, 2025

A multinomial logistic regression was conducted to assess whether occupational positions of the respondents predicted their awareness of oil theft detection using AI enabled technologies. The overall model was not statistically significant, χ²(12) = 3.817, p = .987, with a NagelkerkeR² of .004, indicating negligible explanatory power. No occupational category significantly predicted awareness of oil theft detection using AI enabled technologies when compared to the reference group (“Not Sure”). In other words, respondents’ awareness of AI technological tools for detecting oil theft did not differ in any meaningful way across occupational groups. This suggests that knowledge of such technologies is relatively uniform across employment categories, regardless of whether respondents were unemployed, farmers, artisans, civil servants, traders, or in other forms of work.

The hypothesized association between occupational group and awareness of AI enabled technologies used in detecting oil theft turned to be untrue. This implies that people within the selected communities in Warri Southwest had similar levels of awareness about the technologies employed in detecting oil theft within their communities, irrespective of their occupational roles. Therefore, this paper submits that there is no significant positive relationship between respondents’ occupational group and their awareness of AI enabled technological tools for detecting oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA.

Conclusion and Recommendations

It is acknowledgeable that the respondents align with the fact that AI-powered technologies are essential in curbing oil theft in their area. The accuracy in analysis, precision and swift response of AI in tracking, dictating and responding to oil thievery cannot be overemphasized. However, the lack of adequate awareness, and training on how to deploy or use these technologies were the major constraints. When adequately addressed and synergized with the host communities control strategies, the phenomenon of oil theft in the Warri Southwest in particular and the Niger Delta region in general will be drastically curtailed. Therefore, this paper concludes that the application of technologies is sacrosanct in curbing oil theft, especially when blended with indigenous knowledge and synergy. Therefore, the following recommendations are made for policy direction;

1. There is need for intensified awareness in the communities. It is not something that the State security operatives should be aware of at the detriment of the natives. Carrying the people along will help create synergy between residents and State actors in the fight against oil theft in Warri Southwest LGA..
2. There is need for security agencies to deploy round-the-clock AI thermal drone surveillance technologies, focusing on high-risk pipelines and creeks during peak operating hours. Real-time surveillance should be linked with community vigilante reporting systems for prompt detection and deterrence.
3. There should be creation of State-level Oil Security Technology Hubs to train local technicians for maintenance of surveillance systems, and integrate community reporting platforms into the national monitoring dashboards. This will enhance sustained functionality, efficiency, and promote local ownership of anti-theft AI enabled technologies.

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Citation

Shaheed, I. M., Khudhair, K. T., & Hasan, N. F. (2026). Content Validity Testing of Items for Determining the Appropriateness of a Computer Science-Specific Learning Taxonomy Instrument. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/12

Iman Mousa Shaheed^1, *, Kifah Taha Khudhair², Noor Flayyih Hasan³

¹General Directorate of Education in Najaf, Kufa department of education, Najaf, Iraq

²Technical College of Management – Kufa, Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Kufa, 54003, Iraq

³Southern Technical University, Thi-Qar Technical College, Department of Accounting Techniques, Iraq

*Corresponding author: eman_musa21@yahoo.com

Abstract

Classification of learning objectives using taxonomies can substantially impact teaching and learning processes if the classifications are appropriate to the subject being taught. There is currently a trend toward the development of computer science-specific taxonomies. However, a tool for determining a new taxonomy’s appropriateness does not exist yet due to a lack of agreement regarding the appropriateness of a taxonomy. The purpose of this study was to determine the content validity of an instrument for assessing the appropriateness of a computer science-specific taxonomy. Five individuals specializing in computer science instruction judged the content validity of individual items on a four-point scale. These experts recommended minor revisions to improve the clarity or wording of the items, and these suggestions were incorporated into the instrument. The individual content validity index (I-CVI) and scale content validity index (S-CVI) were calculated. All the I-CVIs were 1.0, and the average scale content validity index was 1.0. The panel determined that all the items possessed sufficiently high content validity. This degree of content appropriateness indicates that the next stage of instrument development can occur.

Keywords: Learning Taxonomy; Appropriateness; Instrument Development; Content Validity Index.

1.0   Introduction

Learning taxonomies are useful planning tools for instructors, helping them to assess curriculum and related educational objectives. With respect to computer science, educators have widely used Bloom’s taxonomy and its revised versions [1, 2]. However, numerous other computer science-specific taxonomies have also been recommended [3-5] because of the original taxonomy’s unsuitability for learning computer science subjects [6]. Teodorescu, Bennhold [7] asserted that to help educators plan and assess their teaching, taxonomies must suit their goals and include subject-specific requirements.

According to Kropp, Stoker [8], a major problem is providing evidence of a taxonomy’s appropriateness including the development of a valid statistical methodology and models.

Unfortunately, there are few studies of the development of such models. Hauenstein [9] suggested five general rules of taxonomy evaluation: it should be applicable, inclusive, consist of categories that are independent from one another, reflect a consistent order, and use terms that are relevant to the subject area. Inclusivity prevents standards from being omitted, and mutual exclusivity prevents overlapping categories in a taxonomy.

The purpose of this study was to determine the content validity of an instrument to assess the appropriateness of a computer science-specific taxonomy. The results address the existing knowledge gap, and this instrument will provide computer science educators with a reliable, valid, and convenient tool for selecting the best taxonomy to use in their teaching practices.

2.0 TAXONOMY Appropriateness

When describing the appropriateness of a taxonomy, one must first determine the subject-specific specifications of the taxonomy. To our knowledge, no studies have discussed these specifications in relation to computer science.

To address this gap in the literature, the authors reviewed 40 studies of the application of Bloom’s taxonomy in computer programming courses. The aim was to answer the following key research questions: What are the deficiencies affecting currently used learning taxonomies with regard to computer-programming courses?

To answer this question, qualitative content analysis techniques were used to analyze statements about the computer programming-related shortcomings of Bloom’s taxonomy. These shortcomings were used to develop specifications for the appropriate computer science-specific learning taxonomy. Since the current adoption of Bloom’s taxonomy by ACM and IEEE Computer Society [10] to categorize the learning results of the basic programming course in the prospectus of the ACM/IEEE-CS, this search was limited to investigating the weaknesses of the original Bloom’s taxonomy and its revised versions. However, this analysis may also indicate other weaknesses in existing Bloom-based taxonomies.

The next sub-section describes the study performed to identify the specifications of a computer science-specific taxonomy and the dimensions required to evaluate the appropriateness of this learning taxonomy.

2.1   Specifications Identification

The literature review in this investigation involved the use of search terms that were derived from the research question, for example, “taxonomies of learning”, “Computer science education”, “computer programming”, and “Bloom’s taxonomy”. This data mining involved the use of four major electronic databases: the ACM Digital Library, ScienceDirect, Springer, and Google Scholar. The title, abstract, and keywords were reviewed in the search for published journal papers, conference proceedings, workshops and excerpts from the relevant literature.

A qualitative content analysis was conducted using the NVivo version 10 qualitative software database (QSR International Pty Ltd, Burlington, MA, USA) and was guided by the procedure of Edwards-Jones [11] to partially automate our analysis of the discussion sections in the reviewed articles.

In particular, one of the authors performed a constant comparison analysis [12] of both deductive and inductive coding approaches [13]. In the deductive phase, the aforementioned rules by Hauenstein [9] were considered. This step was performed by reading the entire set of data. Then, the author chunked the data into smaller meaningful parts. The author then labeled each chunk with a descriptive title or a “code”. NVivo was used to highlight segments of the text that included coding representing a specific weakness. Each new chunk of data was then compared with previous codes so that similar chunks were labeled with the same code. After all the data were coded, the codes were grouped by similarity, and a theme was identified and documented based on each grouping.

As a result, comprehensive computer science-specific taxonomy specifications are proposed, namely, consistency, inclusivity, hierarchical adequacy, representativeness, usability, coherence, mutual exclusivity, and dimensional adequacy. Table 1 presents these primary dimensions along with the approach used and their descriptions.

To ensure inter-rater reliability, the data were coded first. Themes and randomly selected sample statements related to these themes were then given to two reviewers who had taken a course in qualitative research methods. The reviewers were Ph.D. holders in education whose research interests included computer science education. The reviewers were asked to code the documents based on the themes. The agreement between the two experts’ reports measured 86%.

Table 1 Computer Science-Specific Taxonomy Specifications

No	Dimension	Approach	Description
1	Usability	Inductive	The taxonomy should categorize programming learning objectives in a simple way that could break these objectives into their components (i.e. task(s) and knowledge(s)).
2	Consistency	Deductive	The taxonomy should involve a dependable classification and interpretation of programming learning outcomes. These outcomes should always be expressed the same way.
3	Learnability	Inductive	Taxonomic categories and their interpretations should be comprehensible.
4	Hierarchical adequacy	Deductive	The hierarchy of categories should effectively describe programming learning objectives.
5	Dimensional adequacy	Inductive	The taxonomy should have two distinct dimensions (knowledge types and cognitive processes) to successfully describe the constructive learning objectives of programming. According to Airasian and Miranda [14], a two-dimensional approach allows educators to create stronger objectives that address increasingly complex instruction methods.
6	Mutual exclusivity	Inductive	Each learning objective should be assigned to only one category.
7	Inclusivity	Deductive	The taxonomy should include a sufficient list of all necessary programming knowledge types and skills for the user to classify all programming learning standards.
8	Representativeness	Deductive	The taxonomy should use common relevant terms to describe programming skills, knowledge types, and competencies required for each skill. The programming knowledge framework should be considered [15, 16].

3.0   Instrument development

The development process of Lynn [17] was used to guide the content development for this instrument. In this process, when content is being developed for an affective measure such as one of taxonomic appropriateness, two sub-processes occur: development and judgment. Development involves the identification of dimensions or sub-dimensions and extends to item generation and the subsequent integration of items into a suitable form, according to Lynn [17]. Judgment involves determining whether the given content and instrument are sufficiently valid [17]. According to Turner, Quittner [18], during initial instrument development, a conceptual framework should be identified. This framework should be representative so that the domain content is specific and relates to the subject area. This specificity is achieved by reviewing the related literature, during which potential items are identified. Once the preliminary scope of the taxonomy has been identified, the proposed content is analyzed to achieve a satisfactory final structure. 

3.1   Conceptual Framework and Domain Content Identification

Insufficient information exists on theories of measuring taxonomy appropriateness, and no substantive literature regarding the application of theoretical validity frameworks are yet available. However, we recommended that the framework presented in Table 1 be considered when developing a learning taxonomy for computer programming purposes. In addition, the taxonomy framework presented in Table 1 should include items that are representative of the domain of computer programming and that adequately support the validity of the construction. This representativeness is achieved by using the framework to guide the selection of specific content deemed suitable for fully developing the instrument.

3.2   Identification of Items

The identification of items involved writing items for the scales. Initially, items from a previously validated questionnaire, specifically, the Measurement Scales for Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use, by Davis [19], was examined and adapted. Then, suitable items were written for each scale based on a review of the literature [3, 20-37], and these items were incorporated into the taxonomy framework and were finally related to particular dimensions. Table 2 shows the items developed for each dimension.

Table 2 Taxonomy Appropriateness Items.
Dimension	Items
1. Usability	1.1 This taxonomy is easy to use.
	1.2 This taxonomy is flexible in describing learning objectives.
	1.3 Using this taxonomy is effortless.
	1.4 This taxonomy gives me more control over the activities in my course.
2. Consistency	2.1 This taxonomy can be used to interpret programming learning tasks every time.
	2.2 This taxonomy can be used to interpret programming learning knowledge every time.
	2.3 This taxonomy can be used to classify programming learning outcomes every time.
3. Learnability	3.1 The categories in this taxonomy are comprehensible.
	3.2 The categories in this taxonomy can be clearly interpreted.
	3.3 This taxonomy is readable.
4. Hierarchical adequacy	4.1 The ordering of the taxonomy’s skill sets appropriately reflects the programming learning process.
	4.2 The ordering of the taxonomy’s knowledge types appropriately reflects the programming learning process.
	4.3 The ordering of the taxonomy’s categories appropriately reflects programming learning objectives.
5. Dimensional adequacy	5.1 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive dimensions of knowledge that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.
	5.2 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive dimensions of cognitive that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.
	5.3 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive categories that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.
6. Mutual exclusivity	6.1 When using this taxonomy, each knowledge type required in programming learning can be assigned to a single category.
	6.2 When using this taxonomy, each programming learning skill can be assigned to a single category.
	6.3 When using this taxonomy, each programming learning objective can be assigned to a single category.
7. Inclusivity	7.1 The set of knowledge types in this taxonomy include all necessary knowledge types that students must know to perform a given programming learning task.
	7.2 The skills in this taxonomy include all the necessary skills that students must acquire to perform a given programming learning task.
	7.3 The knowledge types in this taxonomy include all appropriate types that students must know to perform a given programming learning task.
	7.4 The skills in this taxonomy include all appropriate skills that students must acquire to perform a given programming learning task.
8. Representativeness	8.1 The categories in this taxonomy are relevant to learning computer programming.
	8.2 The knowledge types in this taxonomy are relevant to knowledge required to perform computer programming learning tasks.
	8.3 The skill sets in this taxonomy are relevant to skills that must be acquired by students to perform computer programming learning tasks.

4.0   Measuring Content Validity

Once the items have been generated, the validity of an item and of the overall instrument must be quantitatively determined [17]. In doing this, researchers frequently calculate a content validity index (CVI). Hambleton, Swaminathan [38] first presented this index and advocated its use in nursing research conducted by Waltz and Bausell [39].

Many factors guided the selection of this index, including its ease of calculation and understanding. In contrast, the content validity ratio (CVR) developed by Lawshe [40], for example, is easy to calculate but not as easy to interpret [41]. Another desirable quality of a content validity measure is that it yields item-level information that can be used to refine or discard items and a summary of the content validity of the overall scale [41].

The CVI is the percentage of respondents who assign an item a score of 3 or 4 on a 1–4 scale of relevance or representativeness. It has been recommended that an individual CVI (I-CVI) and a scale CVI (S-CVI) should be calculated separately and that the S-CVI be reported [39, 41-43].

Polit and Beck [42] preferred the S-CVI in cases where more content-expert panel members are involved because one hundred percent agreement is not feasible. The S-CVI is determined by averaging I-CVI scores. When six or more experts are involved, Lynn [17] recommended a minimum I-CVI of 0.78. However, Waltz and Bausell [39] recommended a minimum S-CVI value of 0.90 for a valid scale in which items should be retained. In this study, we use both the I-CVI and S-CVI to determine the content validity of statements related to taxonomy appropriateness.

4.1   Expert Panel

Lynn [17] argued that at least three experts should be consulted when performing content validation. Our expert panel included five subject matter experts with more than 10 years of teaching programming experience. These experts were invited to evaluate the content validity based on the I-CVI and S-CVI. Each respondent received an informational email that included a hyperlink to a questionnaire. Survey security was maintained using Secure Sockets Layer technologies to protect confidentiality, and no personal identifiers were collected. A four-point scale was used to evaluate the content validity, and the values were matched with verbal descriptions of taxonomic appropriateness as follows: 1 = the item is not representative; 2 = the item requires major revisions to be representative; 3 = the item requires minor revisions to be representative; 4 = the item is representative. The CVI was calculated as the percentage of experts who selected 3 or 4 when scoring the items. As prescribed in the proposed methodology of our study, both the I-CVI and S-CVI were calculated. The average scale CVI (S-CVI/Ave) was determined from all the I-CVI values. The target SCVI/Ave value, according to Polit and Beck [42], is 0.9.

For greater reliability, we then calculated a modified kappa statistic (k*) described by Polit, Beck [41]. According to Wynd, Schmidt [44], the kappa statistic is an important supplement to the CVI because it indicates the degree of agreement beyond chance. To assess the degree of agreement based on the value of κ*, the guidelines by Landis and Koch [45] are used.

5.0   Results and Discussion

Five experts (1 female) agreed to participate in the study. The expert panel consisted of two domain experts, each with more than six years of programming teaching experience. Additionally, three members of the panel had more than 11 years of experience, and two had more than 15 years of experience. The experts currently teach programming and are familiar with the classification of learning objectives in accordance with Bloom’s taxonomy. The panel was given an opportunity to provide feedback on whether they identified mistakes or ambiguities in any part of the instrument. They were also encouraged to suggest ways to improve the instrument.

According to Polit and Beck [42], the I-CVI of a new instrument should range between 0.78 and 0.80. As indicated, all the I-CVI scores for this instrument were 1.0. Therefore, all the items were retained in the questionnaire. Following the recommendations of Lynn [17], testing of a psychometric instrument should be conducted next. The expert panel assigned the instrument I-CVI scores of 1.0 (Table 3). Thus, the S-CVI/Ave value was recorded as 1.0, confirming that each individual item can be retained. The 26 items received an I-CVI value of 1.0. Because the CVI scores were consistently high, we concluded that none of the experts’ suggestions regarding item content needed to be adopted. The high degree of concurrence regarding taxonomy appropriateness among the respondents indicates that the instrument for assessing taxonomy appropriateness is adequate for progression to the next step of instrument development.

A modified kappa statistic (k*) was calculated to determine if there was agreement between the raters’ judgments regarding whether the 26 items regarding taxonomy appropriateness were relevant. There was high agreement between the five raters’ judgments of all the items: κ* = 1.0.

Table 3 Content validity indices (I-CVI and S-CVI)

Items	I-CVI	S-CVI/ave	k*	No. of Respondents
1. Usability
1.1 This taxonomy is easy to use.	1.0		1.0	5
1.2 This taxonomy is flexible in describing learning objectives.	1.0		1.0	5
1.3 Using this taxonomy is effortless.	1.0		1.0	5
1.4 This taxonomy gives me more control over the activities in my course.	1.0		1.0	5
2. Consistency
2.1 This taxonomy can be used to interpret programming learning tasks every time.	1.0		1.0	5
2.2 This taxonomy can be used to interpret programming learning knowledge every time.	1.0		1.0	5
2.3 This taxonomy can be used to classify programming learning outcomes every time.	1.0		1.0	5
3. Learnability
3.1 The categories in this taxonomy are comprehensible.	1.0		1.0	5
3.2 The categories in this taxonomy can be clearly interpreted.	1.0		1.0	5
3.3 This taxonomy is readable.	1.0		1.0	5
4. Hierarchical adequacy
4.1 The ordering of the taxonomy’s skill sets appropriately reflects the programming learning process.	1.0		1.0	5
4.2 The ordering of the taxonomy’s knowledge types appropriately reflects the programming learning process.	1.0		1.0	5
4.3 The ordering of the taxonomy’s categories appropriately reflects programming learning objectives.	1.0		1.0	5
5. Dimensional adequacy
5.1 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive dimensions of knowledge that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.	1.0		1.0	5
5.2 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive dimensions of cognitive that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.	1.0		1.0	5
5.3 This taxonomy includes enough distinctive categories that can be used to successfully describe constructive programming learning objectives.	1.0		1.0	5
6. Mutual exclusivity
6.1 When using this taxonomy, each knowledge type required in programming learning can be assigned to a single category.	1.0		1.0	5
6.2 When using this taxonomy, each programming learning skill can be assigned to a single category.	1.0		1.0	5
6.3 When using this taxonomy, each programming learning objective can be assigned to a single category.	1.0		1.0	5
7. Inclusivity
7.1 The set of knowledge types in this taxonomy include all necessary knowledge types that students must know to perform a given programming learning task.	1.0		1.0	5
7.2 The skills in this taxonomy include all the necessary skills that students must acquire to perform a given programming learning task.	1.0		1.0	5
7.3 The knowledge types in this taxonomy include all appropriate types that students must know to perform a given programming learning task.	1.0		1.0	5
7.4 The skills in this taxonomy include all appropriate skills that students must acquire to perform a given programming learning task.	1.0		1.0	5
8. Representativeness
8.1 The categories in this taxonomy are relevant to learning computer programming.	1.0		1.0	5
8.2 The knowledge types in this taxonomy are relevant to knowledge required to perform computer programming learning tasks.	1.0		1.0	5
8.3 The skill sets in this taxonomy are relevant to skills that must be acquired by students to perform computer programming learning tasks.	1.0		1.0	5
Scale		1.0
I-CVI, individual content validity Index; S-CVI/ave, average scale content validity index; k*, modified kappa statistic

6.0   Conclusions

The responses of the expert panel of programming instructors indicate that the proposed content presents a high degree of taxonomic appropriateness. We also found consistency in terms of agreement among the respondents, indicating that progression to the next phase of instrument development can commence. The 26 items that were considered in the taxonomy appropriateness questionnaire will be psychometrically tested through a pilot evaluation using item response theory. This step will determine whether construct validity in the context of computer programming as demonstrated by the questionnaire serves as an indication of taxonomy appropriateness. The outcomes of this next stage may influence the future selection of taxonomies that are appropriate for this subject area.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to anonymous reviewers whose comments significantly improved this manuscript.

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