1Amadi Aroh, PhD
Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani
Email: amadi.aroh@esut.edu.ng
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4954-3746
2**Oluchukwu Sunday Nwonovo***
Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani
Email: oluchukwu.nwonovo@esut.edu.ng
Corresponding author***
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7697-2323
Abstract
Sustainable development in Nigeria’s nation-building is still hampered by gender disparity, particularly in the fields of criminal justice and health. This study examines the potential benefits of gender-inclusive criminal and health policies on national cohesion, stability, and socioeconomic growth. Using secondary data from government publications, academic publications, and international organisations, findings highlight the persistent gender discrepancies in Nigeria’s healthcare system, the lack of gender-sensitive healthcare infrastructure, and the financial barriers to obtaining medical care. Justice and security in the criminal justice system are still threatened by human trafficking, gender-based violence, and institutionalised discrimination in law enforcement. The paper claims that reducing these differences will advance sustainable development and national cohesion through significant policy changes, more funding, gender-sensitive law enforcement, and legal protections.
Keywords: Cohesive society, Crime, Health policies, Legislative changes, Nation-building
Introduction
A crucial component of nation-building is fostering stability, cohesion, and socioeconomic development within a nation. Globally, inclusive policies have been acknowledged as crucial pillars for long-term national development, especially in the areas of crime and health. In addition to having fair healthcare systems and judicial systems that meet the requirements of all residents, many industrialised countries have achieved notable progress in guaranteeing gender-inclusive policies (Ajah, 2026). Gender-responsive health policies that emphasise equal access to healthcare services, maternal health, and reproductive rights have been put into place in nations like Sweden, Canada, and Germany (Mathis et al., 2024). In a similar vein, these countries have created legal frameworks to safeguard vulnerable groups and provide prompt justice, and their approaches to crime have been modified to successfully address gender-based violence. According to Ajah et al. (2025), these developments are supported by robust institutional structures, well funded public services, and a dedication to gender equality as a fundamental human right. Nonetheless, gender inequality in criminal and health policy remains a problem in many African and Sub-Saharan nations. Inadequate healthcare services disproportionately affect women, and the region has some of the highest rates of maternal death globally (Olisa et al., 2021). According to Onyejegbu et al. (2024), gender-based violence, including domestic abuse and human trafficking, is frequently made worse by socioeconomic disparity, cultural hurdles, and insufficient legal frameworks. Many African countries have made an effort to develop gender-sensitive legislation and policies; South Africa and Rwanda have made significant strides in this regard. For example, South Africa has improved its response to gender-based violence with the introduction of specialised support services and legislation improvements (Chinweze et al., 2024). By attaining a high level of female representation in government, Rwanda has shown that gender perspectives are integrated into national policy decisions (Ajah et al., 2025). However, due to strongly ingrained patriarchal beliefs, budgetary limitations, and insufficient legal protections, many nations continue to confront substantial obstacles in implementing these laws.In Nigeria, these problems are readily apparent. Gender differences in criminal justice and healthcare access continue to be a major obstacle to national advancement, according to Olusegun and Oyelade (2022) and Oweibia et al. (2024). Women and marginalised groups frequently face systemic discrimination while trying to access medical care, particularly in rural areas with few healthcare facilities, according to Oweibia et al. (2024). Nigeria is still plagued by high rates of maternal mortality, a dearth of reproductive health facilities, and a lack of gender-sensitive healthcare policy (Asogwa et al., 2022). Moreover, victims of gender-based violence are frequently not sufficiently protected by criminal laws, and high rates of impunity are brought on by inadequate law enforcement and little legal options (Ajah et al., 2026 2021). Although many states still have inadequate enforcement, the Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (VAPP) of 2015 was passed to address gender-based offences. In a similar vein, Nigeria is a major source, transit, and destination countries for human trafficking victims.Nigeria’s national development is significantly impacted by the relationship between crime, gender, and health. In order to promote economic progress and national solidarity, these disparities must be closed. In addition to advancing social justice, supporting gender-inclusive criminal justice and health policies in Nigeria will improve the nation’s overall growth trajectory and foster a more equitable and cohesive society. Nigeria may be able to effectively navigate the route to sustainable nation-building that guarantees all citizens, regardless of gender, have equal opportunities to prosper if it works to enact and enforce gender-sensitive legislation.
Nigeria’s Legislative and Institutional Framework for Nation Building
The Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act of 2015 (VAPP): This law prohibits gender-based violence, including domestic abuse and harmful customs, according to the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP, 2015). Despite its adoption, only a few states have fully embraced and put its provisions into practice, and state-to-state enforcement has been inconsistent.- Institutional bodies: The National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) and the Federal Ministry of Women Affairs are two organisations that significantly support gender advocacy and policy implementation. However, like many government agencies, these institutions face significant challenges from funding, inefficient administration, and a lack of enforcement power.
- The 1999 Nigerian Constitution, as amended: Although the constitution guarantees fundamental human rights, gender-related protections are still unclear, and customs often violate women’s rights, particularly with regard to marriage, inheritance, and political participation (Obi & Okoye, 2023).
- The National Gender Policy (NGP) 2006 aims to eliminate gender-based discrimination and advance equal opportunities for men and women (Federal Ministry of Women’s Affairs and Social Development, 2006). However, implementation has been slow because of inadequate funding, lax enforcement, and a lack of political will.
Analysing Crime, Gender, and Health Policies in Nation-Building
The social, political, and economic systems that promote stability, advancement, and national cohesion are all part of the nation-building process. Incorporating gender perspectives into governance and policymaking is an essential part of this strategy. Long-term national growth is boosted when all members of society, regardless of gender, have equal access to opportunities, resources, and decision-making processes. According to Lwamba et al. (2022), many countries that have made notable social and economic advancements in the past have done so by guaranteeing female inclusion in the creation and execution of policies. Additionally, studies show that nations with higher levels of gender equality have better social cohesion, economic growth, and political stability (Jewett et al., 2021; Abdulkareem et al., 2023). These nations have more comprehensive and successful policies in sectors like healthcare, education, labour markets, and judicial systems because gender principles have been integrated into governance. However, societies that marginalise specific groups—especially women and other vulnerable groups—often see more socioeconomic inequality and slower rates of development (Mishra & Pettala, 2023; Anjum & Fraser, 2021).According to Idike et al. (2020), gender inequality remains a significant barrier to Nigerian nation-building. According to the report, women are still under-represented in leadership and decision-making positions even though they make up more than half of the population. In the meantime, it is commonly acknowledged that cultural and traditional norms limit women’s access to political participation, economic resources, and education (Robinson & Gottlieb, 2021), which in turn limits their capacity to contribute to the advancement of the country. Inadequate access to healthcare, occupational discrimination, and gender-based violence all make it more difficult for women to fully engage in society. In order to build a more resilient and inclusive country, these disparities must be addressed.There are financial benefits to nation-building through a gender-inclusive approach. It has been demonstrated that increasing the percentage of women in leadership positions and the workforce boosts overall economic growth, productivity, and innovation (Dahlum et al., 2022; Azeem et al., 2022; Mohamed et al., 2021). Women greatly increase household earnings, reduce poverty, and enhance health outcomes for future generations when they have equitable access to financial resources, healthcare, and education (Mohamed et al., 2021). Thus, it is not only a matter of justice but also a strategic necessity for the prosperity of the country to ensure gender equality in social services, economic policy, and government.Gender-sensitive measures in the criminal justice system can help improve stability and national security. Systemic injustices including sexual exploitation, human trafficking, and domestic abuse frequently target women and other marginalised groups. Impunity prevails when crime policies fall short in addressing these gendered issues, eroding public confidence in the government and legal system. To foster social harmony and bolster the rule of law, it is imperative to improve legislative protections against gender-based violence, guarantee equal access to justice, and implement comprehensive victim rehabilitation programs. The ultimate objective of gender inclusion in nation-building is to establish a just, equitable, and sustainable society rather than just attaining parity. Nigeria may maximise its population’s potential and promote long-term national development by implementing gender-sensitive policies in the areas of health, education, crime, and economic growth plans. This is especially crucial since a country that empowers all of its citizens—regardless of gender—is more likely to see long-term peace and economic success.
Difficulties in Putting Required Policies into Practice for Nigeria’s Nation Building
- Opposition to change: Society still strongly opposes gender-inclusive measures. According to Seliga (2023), a range of groups, including legislators, municipal officials, and segments of the general public, often oppose deeply rooted patriarchal views and incorrect beliefs about gender equality. To overcome this resistance, long-term campaigning and educational programs are required.
- Limited political will: Many lawmakers do not prioritise gender inclusion in health and crime policy. Gender issues are often subordinated to other political objectives, and resistance from influential parties further hinders progress. The absence of strong political advocacy and enforcement mechanisms undermines the implementation of gender-focused projects.
- Insufficient funding: Financial constraints significantly impede the execution of gender-responsive programs (Patel, 2023). Many initiatives that promote gender equality, such as shelters for victims of gender-based violence and specialised healthcare facilities, are still underfunded. Insufficient funding for gender-inclusive policy leads to inadequate service delivery and reduced program efficacy.
- Obstacles stemming from religion and culture. Deeply ingrained cultural norms and religious beliefs often sustain gender disparity and hinder the implementation of policies. In many places, societal expectations imposed by traditional gender roles limit women’s participation in decision-making processes. Achieving gender equity in legal and social reforms may be difficult because certain religious beliefs may encourage discriminatory behaviour.
- Weak Institutional Capacity: Chikwe et al. (2024) claim that government agencies tasked with implementing gender-inclusive policies lack the institutional frameworks and technical expertise required to effect meaningful change. Poor agency coordination, a shortage of competent personnel, and bureaucratic inefficiencies all make it more difficult to implement policies and lessen their impact.
- Lack of activism and awareness: Medendorp et al. (2022) assert that insufficient lobbying efforts and poor public knowledge are the reasons behind the sluggish implementation of gender-inclusive laws. Because many people are still ignorant of their rights, they are unable to hold authority responsible. The fact that civil society organisations sometimes lack the money required to increase awareness of gender-related issues further hinders the widespread acceptability of policies.
Evaluating Nigeria’s Nation-Building Through Crime and Gender Policies
- Public Awareness and Education Campaigns: Nationwide campaigns must be started to fight harmful gender norms, promote legal literacy, and enable victims to report crimes without fear of stigma or reprisal. Schools, media outlets, and community organisations should participate in advocacy initiatives to prevent gender-based crimes and promote equality.
- Gender-sensitive policing: Establishing specialised sections within law enforcement agencies to effectively address cases of human trafficking, domestic violence, and sexual abuse. If police officers are trained in trauma-informed treatment, gender sensitivity, and appropriate case management, victim support and trust in the judicial system will rise.
- Community-based crime prevention: Supporting grassroots initiatives that allow women and under-represented groups to participate in crime prevention and community security. To ensure that women actively participate in security and decision-making processes, gender concerns should be integrated into community police techniques.
- Strengthening legal frameworks: Ensuring victims receive fair and timely justice while upholding stringent laws prohibiting gender-based violence, human trafficking, and sexual exploitation. The primary objectives of law reforms should be to remove discriminatory provisions and ensure the protection of vulnerable populations, including women, children, and marginalised communities.
- Judicial and institutional reforms: The judiciary needs to be better prepared to handle gender-based crimes by establishing specialised courts and accelerating cases involving sexual offences and domestic violence. Institutional frameworks can also ensure gender parity in judicial appointments to promote fair representation and decision-making.
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- Rehabilitation and support services: Providing comprehensive support services, such as counselling, shelters, and legal aid, to victims of gender-based crimes. Behavioural treatment, education, and reintegration activities should be incorporated into criminal rehabilitation programs to lessen recurrence, particularly in cases of sexual and domestic abuse.
Assessing Health and Gender Policies in Nigeria’s National Development
- Addressing gender-based violence and mental health: Physical harm, psychological trauma, and issues with reproductive health are some of the main health effects of gender-based violence. Important measures toward gender-sensitive healthcare policy include bolstering legislation, offering specialised support services, and incorporating mental health care within general healthcare services.
- Economic empowerment in healthcare access: Health outcomes can be enhanced by offering financial assistance, health insurance, or subsidised healthcare services to people who are economically disadvantaged, particularly women living in underserved and rural areas. Microfinance and community health programs can guarantee affordability and accessibility.
- Better maternal and reproductive healthcare: Improving general public health and lowering mother mortality rates can be achieved by guaranteeing access to high-quality prenatal, antenatal, and postnatal services. Women’s wellbeing also depends on expanding access to reproductive healthcare services, such as safe delivery methods and contraceptives.
- Education and awareness campaigns: Early detection and treatment can result from raising public understanding of gender-specific health issues like mental health, breast cancer, prostate cancer, and maternity health. To promote preventative healthcare behaviours, gender-sensitive health education should be included in school curricula and community outreach initiatives.
- Gender-sensitive healthcare infrastructure: Medical facilities that address the unique health requirements of men and women, such as family planning services, mental health support, and therapy for victims of gender-based violence, are essential. Additionally, facilities should be prepared to deal with diseases like prostate cancer and work-related accidents that disproportionately impact men.
- Improving healthcare workforce and policy implementation: Educating healthcare professionals on how to provide gender-sensitive care and making sure that policies take gender into account will improve the quality of services. Better health outcomes and more inclusive healthcare policies can result from encouraging more women to enter the medical industry, especially in leadership roles.
Conclusion and Recommendations
To enhance Nigeria’s nation-building, gender-inclusive policies that address crime and health are required. The country can improve social cohesion, economic development, and safety by addressing the unique requirements of both sexes. A gender-inclusive approach ultimately advances a more equitable society by ensuring that everyone, regardless of gender, has equal access to healthcare, legal rights, and economic opportunity. To create a more prosperous and inclusive Nigeria, legislators, the community, and individuals must work together. While civil society organisations continue to work for under-represented groups, the government must take bold action to implement gender-sensitive laws. In order to eradicate deeply ingrained gender biases and advance an egalitarian and polite culture, community involvement is essential.Incorporating gender equality into national policies will improve equity, national cohesion, and sustainable development. A gender-conscious approach to social programs and governance ensures that every Nigerian may contribute significantly to the nation’s progress, protects democracy, and promotes human rights. Nigeria can build a more vibrant and inclusive society where all citizens can thrive with persistent commitment and focused effort.
Based on the findings, the study calls for:
- Observation and evaluation. It is necessary to set up procedures for regularly assessing the effectiveness of gender-inclusive policies. Independent organisations and governmental bodies should conduct regular evaluations to track progress, identify issues, and recommend necessary adjustments. To ensure accountability and inform policy decisions, better data collecting on gender-related issues is required.
- Policy changes. It is necessary to examine and modify current policies to incorporate gender-sensitive frameworks. This means ensuring legal protections for women and other marginalised groups, closing legal loopholes that allow discrimination based on gender, and aligning customary laws with national and international human rights norms.
- More cash. Funding for gender-focused health and crime prevention initiatives should be enough. Sustainable financing should be provided for maternal healthcare, reproductive health services, gender-responsive police units, and shelters for victims of gender-based violence. To encourage female participation in leadership and governance roles, financial incentives may also be used.
- Better cooperation. The government should collaborate with NGOs, foreign organisations, and civil society organisations to enhance the execution of gender-inclusive policies. Multi-stakeholder partnerships can support gender-focused projects financially, provide technical assistance, and foster information sharing. Cross-border cooperation can also help address transnational issues like human trafficking and gender-based violence.
- Public education programs. Communities should have conversations about the importance of gender equality in nation-building. The media, educational institutions, religious leaders, and community influencers should all support gender equity. Additionally, campaigns can focus on dismantling harmful stereotypes and changing how society views gender roles.
- Expanding capacity. Enough training on gender-sensitive procedures should be provided to legislators, law enforcement officers, and medical personnel. This training should focus on identifying gender biases, implementing best practices in handling instances of gender-based violence, and ensuring that everyone has equal access to justice and healthcare.
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Ajah, B. O., Nnam, M. U., Ajah, I. A., Idemili-Aronu, N., Chukwuemeka, O. D., & Agboti, C. I. (2021). Investigating the awareness of virtual and augmented realities as a criminal justice response to the plight of awaiting-trial inmates in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Crime, Law and Social Change, DOI:10.1007/s10611-021-09988-5.
Eze, O.J., Ajah, B. O., Nwonovo, O. S., & Atama, C.S. (2021). Health sector corruption and COVID-19 outbreak: evidence from Anambra and Enugu States, Nigeria. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 40(1), 34-46. DOI:10.1080/02589001.2021.1921129
Nnam, M.U., Effiong, J.E., Iloma, D.O., Terfa, I.M., & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Hazardous drinking and the dark triad: an antidote for manipulative behaviour among students. Current Psychology, 40(4), 1-7.
Anthony, E.O., Obasi, C.O., Obi, D.O., Ajah, B. O., Okpan, O.S., Onyejegbu, C.D. et al., (2021). Exploring the reasons for perennial attacks on churches in Nigeria through the victims’ perspective. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 77(1), a6207.
Ezeanya, O. C. P. & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Addressing the biblical and ecclesial obligation of Nigerian Roman-Catholic priests in promotion of peace and social justice. HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies, 77(4), a7138. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v77i4.7138
Nnamani, G. R., Ilo, K. O., Onyejegbu, D. C., Ajah, B. O., Onwuama, M. E., Obiwulu, A. C., & Nzeakor, O. F. (2021). Use of noncustodial measure and independent monitoring body as panacea to awaiting-trial problems in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 16(1), 51-63.
Ugwuoke, C. O., Ajah, B. O., & Onyejegbu, C. D. (2020). Developing patterns of violent crimes in Nigerian democratic transitions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 53, 1-8.
Ajah, B. O., Ajah, A.I., & Obasi, C. O. (2020). Application of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in the investigation and trial of herdsmen terrorism in Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 15(1), 1-20.
Okpa, J.T., Ajah, B. O., & Igbe, J. E. (2020). Rising trend of phishing attacks on corporate organisations in Cross River State, Nigeria. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 14(2), 460–478.
Ajah, B. O., Dinne, C.E., & Salami, K. K. (2020). Terrorism in contemporary Nigerian society: conquest of Boko-Haram, myth or reality. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 15(1), 312-324.
Eze, O. J., Obi, D. O., & Ajah, B. O. (2020). Nigerian criminal justice system and victims of crime neglect in Enugu Urban. FWU Journal of Social Sciences 14(3), 41-53.
Ajah, B. O*, Uwakwe, E. E., Nwokeoma, B. N., Ugwuoke C. O., & Nnnamani, R. G. (2020). Ameliorating the plight of awaiting-trial inmates in ebonyi state, nigeria through reasonable bail condition. Pertanika Jounal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 28(4), 2897 – 2911.
Areh, C. E., Onwuama, E. M., & Ajah, B. O. (2020). Social consequences of wife-battering in Ogbaru and Onitsha North Local Government Areas of Anambra State, Nigeria. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 14(4), 80-92.
Ajah, B. O., & Okpa, J. T. (2019). Digitization as a solution to the problem of awaiting-trial inmates in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 14(2), 199–207.
Ajah, B. O., & Onyejegbu, D. C. (2019). Neo-economy and militating effects of Africa’s profile on cybercrime. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 13(2), 326–342.
Nnam, M. U., Ajah, B. O., Arua, C. C., Okechukwu, G., & Okorie, C. O. (2019). The war must be sustained: an integrated theoretical perspective of the cyberspace-Boko Haram terrorism nexus in Nigeria. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 13(2), 379–395.
Ajah, B. O. (2018). Educational training of inmates in Awka and Abakaliki prisons, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 13(2), 299–305.
Ajah, B. O., & Ugwuoke, C. O. (2018). Juvenile justice administration and child prisoners in Nigeria. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 13(2), 438–446.
Enweonwu, O. A., Ugwu, I. P., Onyejegbu, D. C., Areh, C. E., & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Religious fanaticism and changing patterns of violent Crime in Nigeria. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1378–1389. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929- 4409.2021.10.158
Onyejegbu, D. C., Onwuama, E. M., Onah, C. I., Okpa, J. T., & Ajah, B. O. (2021). Special courts as Nigerian criminal justice response to the plight of awaiting trial inmates in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1172- 1177. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2021.10.136
Nwadike, N. C., Okpa, J. T., Ofem, N. O., Ajah, B. O., Chinweze, U. C., & Isife, C. T. (2023). Socio-cultural practices and stress among working mothers of underage children in Nigeria Public Universities. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 15(3), 1-23.
Areh, C. E., Ajah, B. O., Ezeanya, O. C. P., Eze, A. U., Onwuchekwa, S. I., & Onyejegbu, C. D. (2021). The Troubling Epidemic of Wife-Battering in Ogbaru and Onitsha North Local Government Areas of Anambra State, Nigeria. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 10, 1349-1361.
Nzeakor, O. F., Nwokeoma, B. N., Hassan, I. M., Ajah, B. O., & Okpa, J. T. (2022). Emerging Trends in Cyber ends in Cybercrime A crime Awareness in Nigeria. International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence & Cybercrime, 5(3), 41-67.
Onwuama, O. P., Ajah, O. B., Asadu, N., Ebimgbo, S. O., Odii, A., & Okpara, K. C (2019). Public perception of police performance in crimes control in Anambra state of Nigeria. African Journal of Law and Criminology, 9(1) 17-26.
Ajah, B. O., Eze, O. J., & Okpa, J. T. (2024). Reforming the Nigeria Criminal Justice System. Rowman & Littlefield.
Okpa, J. T., *Ajah, B. O*., Eze, O. J., & Enweonwu, O. A. (2022). Communal conflict and violence: Causes and impact. In C. Martin, V. R. Preedy and V. B. Patel (eds) Handbook of Anger, Aggression, and Violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 98711-4_184-1
Eze, O.J., *Ajah, B.O.*, Okpa, J.T., Ngwu, G. E. (2023). Ethnic-based violence: Nigeria perspectives. In: Martin, C., V. R. Preedy and V. B. Patel (Eds), Handbook of anger, aggression, and violence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98711- 4_182-2
Eze, J.O., Okpa, J.T., Onyejegbu, C.D., & *Ajah, B. O*. (2022). Cybercrime: victims’ shock absorption mechanisms. UK: IntechOpen. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.106818.
Alawari, B. M., & Ajah, O. B. (2017). Understanding the gender dimensions of cyberbullying among undergraduates in Nigeria. (A Book Chapter). Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited, Zaria.
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