Citation

Ambo, I. A., Baba, N. M., & Idongesit, N. A. (2026). Mineralogical and Chemical Assessment of Cassiterite Ore from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria as Potential Raw Materials for Tin Metal Extraction. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/34

             ¹Ambo, I. Amos and ²Baba, N. Mohammed and ³Idongesit, Nnammoso Akpan*

^1&2Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

³Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Health Sciences, Otukpo, Benue State, Nigeria

 (*)Corresponding author: aidongesit@yahoo.com and idongesit.akpan@fuhso.edu.ng; ORCID: ID: 0009-0009-2168-3596;  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2168-3596

ABSTRACT

In the early 1970s, Nigeria held the 7th position on the world record for tin metal production and exportation, and that seems to be history now, as the nation’s economic focus is now highly concentrated on petroleum and natural gas exploration and exportation. In Plateau State, tin mining activities date back to the early 1960s. Currently, in the Du community in Jos South of the State, huge tin ore deposits are found and locally mined by indigenes with poor derivation of economic value. Thus, the objectives of this study were to investigate the elemental, chemical/mineralogical contents and tin content of the cassiterite ore of Du in Plateau State. The study retained focus on X-ray fluorescence, Flame Atomic Absorption with inductively coupled plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer to examine the chemical compositions of the sample and SEM for crystal structural analysis of the ore. Results of elemental analysis showed in percentage that the ore contains: 7.168%, 6.146%, 3.471%, 2.027% of tin, zirconium, iron, and titanium, respectively and 449.29, 602.5 of Na₂O and K₂O in parts per million. The main minerals of the ore were: 60.98% SnO₂ > 8.70% SiO₂ > 5.70% ZrO₂ > 5.56% of Fe₂O₃ > 4.81% NbO > 4.07% TiO₂ > 3.26% Bi₂O₃ > 2.99 of WO₃ > 2.33% CuS₂. The results reveal that the cassiterite ores contain low silica content and a significant percentage of tin and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for the production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal.

Keywords: Cassiterite, Economic, Deposits, Composition, Tin, Minerals

INTRODUCTION

Over the years, in Nigeria, attention was given earlier to the agriculture and solid mineral sectors. However, with the discovery of oil minerals, the exploration of minerals such as coal, cassiterite, tantalite, etc. was abandoned due to the discovery of petroleum and natural gas.  As a result of that, the development and processing of metallic ores for the extraction of valuable metals have not received adequate attention. Meanwhile, there is no doubt that, of all the naturally occurring minerals, metallic mineral ores seem to be the most abundant in the Earth’s crust compared to other mineral resources such as natural gas and petroleum, which are non-renewable sources of energy (Ebbing and Gammon, 2009). In recent times, not much has been done in terms of the mineralogy of some of the metal ores, like cassiterite, which are naturally abundant in Nigeria. This makes the processing of the ores for metal extraction difficult. For cassiterite in particular, information has revealed that there are about seventy tin-bearing minerals, of which most of the minerals occur as sulfides, and the rest as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, and stannides. Nevertheless, the most important tin mineral ore is cassiterite (SnO₂), otherwise known as tin stone (Grant, 2001). Over the years, according to Idongesit et al. (2025), it has been recognized that cassiterite, as a tin oxide mineral, is typically found in high-temperature hydrothermal veins and granite pegmatites and greisen associated with other rock minerals such as granites, microgranites and quartz porphyries together with other oxides such as wolframite, columbite, tantalite, scheelite and hematite (Bowles, 2021). The minerals are formed through the geological movement of fluids and the slow, water-driven deposition of organic minerals over a long period of time, and the specific mineralogy and composition of tin ore deposits can vary widely depending on the geological and environmental conditions in which they are formed (Nesse, 2011).

Additionally, some of the key properties of tin ore (cassiterite), which contribute to its unique characteristics and uses for various industrial applications, particularly as a source of tin metal for various industrial applications, include: chemical composition, hardness, magnetic property, melting point, and refractive index, among others (Haldar, 2018). According to Bowles (2021), tin ore is primarily composed of tin dioxide (SnO₂), which is an oxide mineral containing tin as the main element. However, there is increasing evidence that the ore usually contains other impurities and trace elements, such as iron, manganese, tungsten, and tantalum, which can vary depending on the specific tin ore deposit (Tapster and Bright, 2020). More so, Tapster and Bright (2020), have asserted that cassiterite (SnO₂) is the most common ore phase of tin (Sn) metal and that it typically contains 1–100 µg g^-1 of uranium and relatively low concentrations of lead metal in addition to other traces of elements such as lithium, tungsten, niobium, and titanium. In addition, the literature has documented that cassiterite, as an important economic ore of tin metal, is a type of polymetallic resource mineral ore that contains metals which may include: tin, tantalum, niobium, copper, and iron (Tapster and Bright, 2020). In a recent report, Bowles (2021), it has been further established that cassiterite ore usually contains other valuable metal components to include iron, manganese, titanium, and niobium, and any of the metals can substitute for Sn with a combination of divalent and pentavalent elements replacing the tetravalent Sn, following the relationship given as shown in equation (1):

3Sn⁴⁺ → 2TaNb⁵⁺ + FeMn²⁺………………………………………… (Equ. 1).

Expectedly, this substitution, according to the author, is in part responsible for the darker colored cassiterite, although it is a rather unlikely but feasible possibility.

Interestingly, the structural information about cassiterite ore has been established by Bowles (2021). The natural mineralogical form, as published by the crystal data of the structural information, suggests that the elemental atoms in cassiterite are tetragonally arranged with (space group P4₂/mnm), and this structure has tin atoms at the corners and center of the unit cell (Figures 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0). Again, the cell dimensions have been equally identified as a = 4.73 and c = 3.18 Å, with the oxygen atoms lying in the same basal plane as the tin atoms; thus making each tin atom surrounded by six oxygen atoms at the corners of an almost regular octahedron. Additionally, Bowles’ report revealed certain properties of the ore with variations in terms of colour and shape as shown in Figure 2.0.

        (1.0)    (2.0) (3.0)                                                    

Figures 1.0, 2.0 & 3.0: Structure of Cassiterite Crystal Showing Tin and Oxygen Atoms (Adapted from Bowles (2021) and (WFI, 2023; Warr, 2021).

Furthermore, evidence for the existence of different forms of cassiterite has been reported by different researchers including Haldar (2018) and Bowles (2021). More commonly, cassiterites are often classed as gemstones, and Placer-mined tin, which is also called “stream tin” and it is important to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite (Bowles, 2021). There is still considerable other evidence that cassiterite has been recognized to occur in various secondary forms in which it occurs as fine-grained or fibrous varieties with local names that describe the appearance, and where wood-tin is a common fibrous variety with concentric colloform bands resembling the growth rings of wood (Haldar, 2018), as shown in Figures (4.0-9.0).

  (4.0) (5.0)

  (6.0) (7.0)

      (8.0)  (9.0)         

Figures 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, & 9.0: 4.0 & 5.0 are Faceted Crystal of Cassiterite Ore: Adapted from (Adam, 1998); 6.0 & 7.0 Are Crystal of Cassiterite Adapted from (King, 2022); 8.0 & 9.0 are Wood tin cassiterite, from Durango Mexico and is Cassiterite Crystals, Blue Tier Tin-Field, from Tasmania, Australia Respectively Adapted from (WFI, 2023).

With the rising cost of living, building and construction, educational materials, electricity, and health care facilities, it is noteworthy that many nations of the world have diversified their economy with a focus now on metallic ore (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, Henckens (2021) reported that cassiterite mining and tin production tripled in the 20^th century, but in contrast to many other raw materials, tin production growth was linear rather than exponential; the world tin production in 2019 was 310,000 tons and a little above that value in 2020 (Figure 10.0).

  Figure 10.0: Main Tin Producing Countries of the World: US Geological Survey (USGS,       2020)

In Nigeria, tin ore is mined in Plateau State, with large deposits of the ore being found in Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of the state. The metal was produced in large quantities in the early seventies, before about 1957, when Nigeria provided 4 % of the world’s tin and was the 7^th largest producer of tin in the world (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011; Idongesit et al., 2025).  However, the nation’s economic attention has shifted, with focus now on crude oil and natural gas, presumably because it has proven to be more successful in terms of revenue accrued to the Nigerian government. Unfortunately, there have been a number of attempts in the past to develop other mineral sectors in Nigeria, particularly the solid mineral sector, but such efforts have not yielded the expected growth of the sector. At the moment, it has become increasingly worrisome that Nigeria which reported of becoming a rapidly growing source of tin-in-concentrate in 2017, with tin ore exported in the first four months of the year at totals of importing country’s data at 2,967 tons (gross weight) or an estimated 2,000 tons of tin contained based on a 67 % average tin content with the reported growth as shown in Figure 11.0 (NGSA, 2017), is now grabbling with unclear shipments quantity.

Figure 11.0: Chart of Nigerian Tin Metal Exports Between 2014 and 2017: (NGSA, 2017)

Therefore, the current status of Nigeria in tin production is lamentable, and the situation has continued to necessitate ongoing research and innovation, which are expected to be supported by the government’s political will. To navigate the complex mineral processing situations through the application of emerging modern scientific and technological approaches requires several steps, and thus, there is an urgent need for government at all levels to rise to the occasion by utilizing available scientific research information for adequate and effective utilization of Nigeria’s solid minerals sector to explore minerals like tin for national economic benefits. Meanwhile, globally, considerable interest in tin ore has continued to grow, with the focus being on the application of modern techniques for tin ore deposits assessment, mining, and tin metal extraction. Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand that humans have extracted tin from cassiterite ores for thousands of years, since it is relatively simple to refine, as tin was one of the first metals that humans learned to use during the Bronze Age (Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024). 

Tin metal and tin-related processed products like tin cans (Cumhur, 2012), have found several applications, with many examples of tin products such as solder, tin plating alloy wire, tin chemicals, brass and bronze, specialized alloys, PVC stabilizers, and Li-ion batteries being used in our everyday life. Additionally, Süli (2019) and Warr ((2021)indicated that tin is essential for producing solder on PCBs and in packaging applications, and many other uses, such as in the manufacture of biocides and fungicides. With the extensive applications of tin metal, cassiterite ore is essential and beneficial to human life and a reliable source of minerals for industrial advancement (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, it is not probable to assert that cassiterite ore mining and processing have been conducted for thousands of years, with tin metal continuing to play a very significant role in human history, particularly in the production of bronze and in copper alloys (Fosu et al., 2024; Idongesit et al., 2025).  In addition to these, it was widely used in ancient civilizations for tools, weapons, and in artwork (Klein and Philpotts, 2013; Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024). It is important to note that the tin market is undoubtedly driven by global demand, supply and production trends, and various applications across industries (Idongesit et al., 2025).

However, despite its usefulness, cassiterite ore has continued to receive little attention regardless of its common occurrence and economic importance and surprisingly, the mineralogical information on cassiterite ores is generally scarce and in Nigeria in particular where tin mining activities have been known to have existed in Plateau state for over two decades, there is almost no available substantial information on cassiterite ores mined in the state (Idongesit et al., 2025). Except, it is striking that most of the studies conducted in that area are on tailings for the extraction of other metals like iron and copper. Again, although commercially important quantities of cassiterite occur in placer deposits in tailings, however, there is also considerable other evidence that cassiterite also occurs in granite and pegmatite-associated deposits (Idongesit et al., 2025). Meanwhile, Abubakre and co-workers have reported on exploring the potential of tailings of Bukuru Jos South cassiterite Deposit in Plateau State, Nigeria for the Production of Iron ore Pellets (Abubakre et al., 2009). Furthermore, in another classic study, Ogwuegbu and co-workers have reported on the mineralogical characterization of Kuru cassiterite ore in Plateau State by SEM-EDS, XRD, and ICP Techniques (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011).  Other available reports on tin mining activities in Jos, Plateau include that of Cooper (2021), and that of Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) records volume 14, under the Ministry of Mines and Steel Development (NGSA, 2017). Very recently, Idongesit et al. (2025) have reported the study of the eco-friendly chemical leaching of cassiterite ore obtained from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, in acidic media for tin extraction.   

Essentially, as the global demand for tin metal has received attention quite out of proportion to its general importance, there is considerable interest in other sources of tin metal for the possible extraction of tin. In that regard, Bunnakkha and Jarupisitthorn (2012), reported the extraction of tin from Hardhead by oxidation and fusion with sodium hydroxide, and equally recently, Yuma et al. (2020), have reported hydrometallurgical extraction of tin from cassiterite ore in Kalima (DR Congo) by alkaline fusion with a eutectic mixture of alkali hydroxides (sodium and potassium). More recently, it has been recognized that it might become a serious issue for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to meet up the annual high rising demand for tin for production of wires, in the coating of electronic enclosures and housings (Süli, 2019; Idongesit et al., 2025), and the idea still persists in some quarters, perhaps because little efforts have been directed to cassiterite ores analysis and provision of mineralogical information for reasonable extraction of tin metal. Interestingly too, as this view is still persisting for some time, it has caused many other researchers to spring up in an attempt, like this very particular study, to provide useful information that would guide, in general, the extraction of tin metal from cassiterite ores.

Meanwhile, it should however, be mentioned that the desirability of human to effectively exploit mineral resources like cassiterite ores and maximize their full economic benefits could be accomplished through the use of modern technologies based on available information about such minerals. Therefore, it is pertinent to note that the identification and characterization of mineral compositions of mineral ores is of fundamental importance in the development of technologies and operations of mining and mineral processing systems (Khairulnizan, 2022), and it is equally very important in choosing suitable technologies and flowsheet that are less cost, eco-friendly and minimize greenhouse gases emission for the recovering of the constituent metals (Idongesit et al., 2025). Additionally, and more importantly, it is also critical in optimizing the actual technological conditions of either pyrometallurgical plant or hydrometallurgical methodologies for improving both operational performance and expected outputs (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). According to Khairulnizan (2022) and Idongesit et al. (2025), the growing need for detailed information about the mineralogical composition of a mineral deposit therefore determines that mineral characterization studies form an integral and often critical part of investigations of mineral ore deposits.

Interestingly, it is imperative to further establish that it has been well recognized that the knowledge of mineralogical or chemical composition, ores’ particle sizes, morphology and elemental association with other minerals in mineral ores like cassiterite is therefore expected to provide insights and information on the characteristics, type, nature and amount of minerals and elements present within the ore at different locations that would permit an assessment and determination of the optimal processing route for its constituent minerals/metals extraction (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). In addition, various researchers have evaluated different mineral ores and have provided evidence that a rather unlikely but feasible possibility of mineral ore deposits located even in a particular geographical location do not have the same mineralogical and elemental compositions due to different processes of formation, soil mineral compositions and conditions, and different geological locations and disposition (Anthony et al., 2005; Idongesit et al., 2025). Based on the foregoing, although it is true that all mineral ore deposits at a particular location in a community or state or country or continent may have different mineralogical compositions, it is also true that the different mineralogical compositions can be ascertained through proper experimental mineralogical assessment like this kind of ours. It can be argued that more commonly, the preceding observations are often used as the rationale to assess mineral ores so as to decide and establish the gainfulness of such ores using modern technologies for a specific deposit to ascertain the various applications and value chain addition.

Clearly, it is somewhat ironic that despite the abundant deposits of cassiterite ores in Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, and increased global interest in the cassiterite ores and with the global high demand for tin metal in the telecommunication industry for soldering work (Idongesit et al., 2025), cassiterite mineralogical assessment has received very little attention. In fact, at the moment, there is a drought of information on the mineralogical/chemical and elemental composition of cassiterite ore deposits in the Du community in Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria. Therefore, with the global increasingly scarce supplies of cassiterite concentrates and tin metal, there is an urgent and growing need for cassiterite ore deposits to be adequately assessed in terms of their mineralogical and chemical compositions in order to ascertain their suitability for the preparation of cassiterite concentrates and the extraction of tin metal.

Given the above, this study is aimed at not only assessing the mineralogy of the cassiterite ore but also its elemental composition for possible processing into concentrates and tin and other metals for value chain addition that would enhance economic, industrial, and technological advancement of Nigerian society in particular and the African continent in general. In general, the purpose of this study is to gain some understanding of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore for the extraction of tin metal, and it is reasonable to expect that this study, as vital as it is, has obtained accurate mineralogical, physico-chemical properties, elemental compositions, and the percentage tin content of the cassiterite ore mined from Du. The mineralogical composition and elemental characteristics of Du Cassiterite ore deposit were performed by a combination of different instrumental methodologies, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer and flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) to examine the chemical compositions of the samples and SEM for crystal structural analysis. The rationale and the general impression are that it would be of great value if the results of this study would be carefully used over the coming years and we equally believe that these results will become increasingly widespread for a variety of mineralogical studies to add a further tool to the arsenal of parameters and information available for mineralogical study of cassiterite ores in particular and other mineral ores in general.

            MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The study area is located at Du, a local village in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State of Nigeria. There are ongoing mining activities for tin in the area, with active mining sites where cassiterite ore (SnO₂), used for this work, was collected. Geographically, Du in Jos South of Plateau State (9.8965^o N, 8.8583^o E) is in the North central zone of Nigeria, and the occupations of the local community are predominantly subsistence farming, hunting, and local mining. The tribal dwellers of Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State are typical the Berom tribe who are mainly peasant farmers and while Figure 12.0 is the map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State showing Du, Figures 13a 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e and 13f show the plates of snapped images of mining sites in the area and Figure 14.0 shows the plates of snapped images the cassiterite ores.

Figure 12.0: Map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State, Showing Du (adapted from Research Gate).

(13a) (13b)

(13c) (13d)         

(13e) (13f)

 Figures 13a, 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e & 13f: Plates of Snapped Images of Cassiterite Ore Mining Sites at Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, Showing Miners on Mining Activities.

 Figure 14.0: Plates of Images of Cassiterite Ores Mined from Du, Jos South, Plateau State

Sample Collection

 Up to 5.0 kg of the crude cassiterite ore was purchased from the local miners who are also the indigen of the community at five different active mining sites located at a distance apart. The samples were collected in sterilized polyethylene bags and were transported to the laboratory prior to analysis.

Sample Preparation

Crushing and Grinding

 1.0 kg cassiterite tin ore (SnO₂) was crushed into 1-inch size using a laboratory jaw crusher (10- 300TPH concrete crusher, China), and then followed by homogenization and sieving, and then divided into two equal portions. One portion was further crushed to less than (-2 mm) particles using jaw and roller crushers (2PG series, 350 x 350Jpeq, Japan). The samples were then riffled to obtain a representative sample by using a Jones Riffler according to the descriptions in Idongesit et al. (2025) and Soltani et al. (2021). The representative sample was, in addition, milled into a powder form by using a laboratory ball mill, and the well-prepared powder form of the sample was ready for mineralogical analysis and leaching experiments.

Analysis

SEM and XRF Analysis

A portion of the powdered ore samples (20.0 g) was analyzed for structural arrangement of particles in the ore using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and for optical mineralogical properties. For the XRF analysis, fine powder ore samples were mixed with a binding aid and pressed to produce homogeneous sample pellets, and thereafter the samples were subjected to XRF analysis (Soltani et al., 2021).

Thermochemical Tests

Thermal tests were performed by heating 25.0 g of the cassiterite ore powder mixed with fine crystals of K₂SO₄ in the ratio of 2:3 to high temperatures (2000 °C) using a muffle electric furnace (SX-5-12; PC:22070222/2000 °C), and the melting behavior of the ore was carefully observed within four hours.

Density Measurement

 This measurement was performed using a density balance and also with a relative density glass bottle (50 ml/20 °C) in order to determine the density of the ore, and this has provided additional information for the characterization of the ore. Additionally, Archimedes’ principal method was further utilized to confirm the density of the ore using this relationship.

    Density =          = 

Magnetism Test

Magnetism property tests of the cassiterite ore were performed using a bar magnet and were further confirmed using a magnetic separator.

            RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1.0: Result of Physico-Chemical Properties of Cassiterite Ore             

Property	Result
Colour	Greyish black
Hardness	6.72
Thermal property (Melting Point)         Density	1698 oC/3,088 oF/1971 K                                           6.52
Specific Gravity              Loss of Ignition (LOI)         Magnetic Property  Lustre	6.52                                          2200                                     Non-magnetic                                     High metallic lustre

The results of the physico-chemical properties of the ore (Table 1.0) show that the ore is heavily dense which is in agreement with the reports of many other researchers in the literature who have reported that cassiterite ore has a density within the range of 6.4 to 7.1 g/cm³. Additionally, the tin ore has a high thermal property (melting temperature) of 1698 ^oC/3,088 ^oF/1971 K which is in agreement with the report by Henckens (2021), (1720 °C). The result of the magnetic property suggests that the ore possesses non-magnetic behavior with dense and black-grayish in appearance in colour.

The result of the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the ore and the weight loss observed under the temperature range between 210 °C and 250 °C. It is believed that it may be due to the loss of physically absorbed water or the evaporation of adsorbed water from the surface of the ore particles. The weight loss was also observed between 1175 ^◦C and 1250 ^◦C is believed to be mainly due to the decomposition of the K₂SO₄ as the salt decomposes at temperatures above 1150 ^oC (Wang et al., 2019). The weight loss observed under the temperature range between 1600 ^◦C and 1650 ^◦C may be due to the decomposition of the ore and the steady weight loss under the temperature ranges between 1650 ^◦C and 1698 ^◦C with an endothermic curve noticed within the temperatures as shown in (Figure 15.0)

     Figure 15.0: Thermochemical Behaviour of Cassiterite Ore

Table 2.0: Result of Crystal Properties of Cassiterite Ore              

	Property	Result
Unit Cell    Space group   Refractive Index Dispersion         Crystal System     Crystal Class		a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å; Z = 2.0              P42/mnm          nω = 2.00; nε = 2.095 0.069                                           Tetragonal Tetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm); (4/m 2/m 2/m)

The crystallographic information of the ore shown in Table 2.0 indicates the general impression that the ore crystal system is tetragonal with cubic crystal sides (a(Å)/c(Å) (in Armstrong unit) as a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å. Interestingly, also, a noteworthy feature of the data in (Table 2.0) is the space group (P4₂/mnm) and the contribution number to one cell (Z = 2), which further confirms the crystal information.

Table 3.0: Result of Mineralogical Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Mineral                           Composition in (ppm)

% Composition

    SiO₂                                              87000                                                      8.70

Fe2O3

55600

5.56

    SnO₂                                                                  609800                                                  60.98

     ZrO₂                                              57000                                                    5.70

     WO₃                                              2986                                                      2.99

     NbO                                              48110                                                    4.81

     TiO₂                                                                    40675                                                    4.07

     Bi₂O₃                                                                  32628.2                                                 3.26

     CuS₂                                             23250                                                    2.33

     MnO₂                                                              6939                                                      0.694

     SeO₂                                             649                                                        0.065

     K₂O                                              602.50                                                   0.0603

     Na₂O                                            449.29                                                   0.0449

     As₂O₃                                                                629                                                        0.063

     Al₂O₃                                                                 6500                                                      0.65

     Co₃O₄                                                                33                                                          0.0033

     Cr₂O₃                                                                 17                                                          0.0017

     VO₂                                                                    11                                                          0.0011

     SrO                                              5.4                                                         0.00054

     LOI                                              2200                                                      0.22

The result of the mineralogical composition of the ore presented in Table 3.0 shows that the ore is rich in tin oxide content amounting to 60.98 % of the oxide. As shown in (Table 3.0), the ore is low in silica content of about 8.70 %. The low silica content will lead to low consumption of processing chemicals and will enhance the availability of the metals for processing. From the mineralogical standpoint, the total percentage of minerals detected is 100 %, including loss of ignition (LOI) at (> 1000 °C), and the total percentage of minerals identified with a significant amount in the ore is 99.05 %. The traditional explanation for this is that those are the principal minerals of the ore. The ore is made up of two major types of minerals, oxides and sulphides. The oxide minerals are more abundant due to the mineralization process and the available Earth’s minerals, and the geological location. The minerals identified in their order of abundance are: SiO₂ > ZrO₂ > Fe₂O₃ > NbO > TiO₂ > Bi₂O₃ > WO₃ > CuS₂. From the result, the ore has a significant percentage of tin metal oxide which can be economically exploited for the extraction of an appreciable percentage of tin metal. Contrary to the unequivocal assertion that only stanniferous pegmatites cassiterite ore formed in the areas where mineralization is associated with deep-seated intrusions of acid granites are the type of cassiterite ores mined in the Republic of Congo, and Nigeria (Khairulnizan, 2022), it is equally worthwhile to become aware of the occurrence of Placer-mined tin which is also called “stream tin” in Du, Plateau State, Nigeria and it is important also to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite ores (Bowles, 2021) as shown in Figures 14.0.  

Table 4.0:  Result of Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Element	Percentage Composition
Sb	0.00
Sn	7.168
Cd	0.00
Pd	0.00
Ag	0.022
Bal	75.194
Mo	0.00
Nb	2.976
Zr	6.146
Sr	0.003
Rb	0.00
Bi	0.542
As	0.053
Se	0.187
Au	0.00
Pt	0.00
Pb	0.00
W	1.176
Zn	0.00
Cu	0.665
Ni	0.00
Co	0.032
Fe	3.471
Mn	0.257
Cr	0.015
V	0.010
Ti	2.027
Ca	0.00
K	0.055

The result in Table 4.0 shows the XRF elemental composition of the ore. The ore contains 7.168 % of free tin metal, 6.146 % of zirconium metal, 3.471 % of iron and 2.976 % of niobium. Other metals with significant percentage abundance include titanium (2.027 %), tungsten (1.176 %). Fundamentally, the ore has a high abundance of boron aluminide (Bal) mineral (75.194 %). The elements identified in their order of concentrations are Bal > Sn > Zr > Fe > Nb > Ti > W > Cu >Bi > Mn > Se (Table 5).  The ore contained some other elements that include: K (0.055), As (0.053), Co (0.032), Ag (0.022), Cr (0.015), V (0.010), Sr (0.003). From the results obtained, however, boron aluminide (Bal) is found naturally in the ore and the alloyed substance is of interest because of its usefulness and application in aerospace. As shown in Table 4.0, the cassiterite ore has tin, zirconium and iron in significant concentrations for consideration in terms of processing for application. The presence of a high percentage of boron aluminide (Bal) in the ores, as shown in Figure 16.0, suggests that the cassiterite ore from Du in Plateau State, Nigeria, is strategic for exploitation for prospective applications in both energy and aerospace industries, in addition to the solid mineral industry. Meanwhile, although it is unclear what forms the alloy in association with the ores and with our meager information in that regard, we will suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ores.

 Figure 16.0: A Chart of Percentage Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Result of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The result of the scanning electron microscope is presented in Figure 17.0. The image shows the distribution of the minerals in the ore which are finely distributed in the ore as shown in the image. This will be used to evaluate the extent of leaching of the ore. Additionally, the SEM result in (Figure 17.0) shows the image of cassiterite ore as the arrangement of fine particles within the ore crystallographic structure. The cassiterite mineral is irregularly spread through the pegmatite body as large black or dark brown dipyramidal crystals, which agrees with the assertion made in Khairulnizan (2022).

                   Figure 17.0: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of Cassiterite Ore Obtained by Thermo Fisher Scientific Machine, 2 Radcliff Road, Tewksbury, Ma 01876, USA; XL3-98293.

CONCLUSION

The cardinal focus of this study was to use various instrumental methodologies to analyze cassiterite ore mined from Du in Jos South, Plateau, Nigeria to characterize the ore in terms of its mineralogical and elemental compositions and to ascertain whether the ores are rich in tin and other metals for possible commercial industrial extraction. Certainly, the recognition of the existence of Placer cassiterite ores in Du deposits is not surprising as such has been mentioned in the literature as being in Jos, Plateau State. Meanwhile, the general impression of the results of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore is that the ore is rich in tin oxide (SnO₂) to the tone of 60.98 %, followed by silica (8.70 %), zircon dioxide (5.70 % of ZrO₂), hematite (5.56 % of Fe₂O₃), niobium oxide (4.81 % of NbO) and titania (4.07 % of TiO₂). A noteworthy feature of cassiterite ore, as indicated by mineralogical data, is that the ore is approximately 97.61% rich in oxide minerals, while the remaining 2.39% is comprised of sulphide minerals. Another exciting conclusion drawn about the ore is that its tin metal content of 7.168 % is moderately good and adequate for large-scale or commercial extraction. Again, it is also crystal clear and reasonable to agree that the ore is moderately good in content of other metals, such as 6.146 % of Zr, 3.471 % of Fe, 2.976 % of Nb and 2.027 % of Ti. Additionally, we the investigators, have argued that the discovery of the existence of naturally occurring boron aluminide (Bal) in the ore which has not been reported elsewhere in the literature, has made this work novel.  

At this point, it is worthwhile, after all, to believe that the above detailed explanations suggest that the assessment of the inherent mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ores mined from Du community in Jos South of Plateau State, Nigeria, reveals that the ores contain low silica content and significant percentage of tin metal and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal.  We therefore call on the governments of Nigeria at all levels (Idongesit et al., 2025b) (Local government, Plateau State government and the Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals), private industries, foreign investors and individual manufacturers to avail themselves with this information to explore the possible maximum exploitation of the natural abundance mineral resources of the area for economic benefit of Plateau State and Nigeria in particular and African continent in general.

SUGGESTION

We would like to suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ore deposits at Du in Jos, South Plateau State, Nigeria, particularly for the extraction of boron aluminide (Bal) that is found to be naturally occurring in a large percentage of 75.194 % of the ores.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS

Professor Ambo, I. Amos, conceptualized and composed the topic, supervised the research work, and read-proof the paper’s manuscript. Professor Baba, N. Mohammed, co-supervised the work and the drafting of the paper’s manuscript, while Idongesit Nnammonso Akpan performed the tasks of carrying out the research work, drafting the manuscript, typesetting, editing, and proper referencing, as well as the production of the final draft of the paper’s manuscript.   

FUNDING

 This research work was not sponsored by any internal or external institutional-based sponsors or National or International organizations.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The data backing up the findings of this investigation will be made readily accessible by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL

Since all the sources of information used in this investigation, which are in the public domain, have been duly acknowledged, and additional ethical approval and consent were obtained while taking the snapped shots pictures of the local miners, therefore, there was no ethical violation in this work.

DECLARATIONS OF CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The authors of this paper declare that they have no known existed competing interest during and after the production of the paper.

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Introduction to Tiranga Game 

Tiranga Game has emerged as a captivating platform that blends excitement with strategic thinking. Inspired by vibrant colors and simple predictions, it offers users an engaging way to test their intuition and enjoy interactive challenges. Named after the iconic tricolor, it resonates with a sense of national pride while providing a modern digital experience. This game stands out for its accessibility, making it suitable for beginners and seasoned players alike. Whether you’re looking for a quick session or a deeper dive into prediction strategies, Tiranga Game delivers a seamless blend of fun and mental stimulation. 

In today’s fast-paced world, digital games like this one provide a refreshing break, allowing users to immerse themselves in colorful scenarios. The platform’s design emphasizes ease of use, with intuitive interfaces that guide players through every step. From the moment you log in, the vibrant visuals and straightforward mechanics draw you in, creating an environment where creativity and quick decision-making thrive. As we delve deeper, we’ll explore what makes Tiranga Game a standout choice for entertainment seekers.

Understanding the Core Concept 

At its heart, Tiranga Game revolves around color prediction, where players anticipate outcomes based on patterns and probabilities. The primary colors involved are red, green, and violet, each representing different possibilities in the game’s rounds. This mechanic draws from basic observational skills, encouraging users to analyze trends and make informed choices. Unlike complex simulations, the simplicity here is key—predict the next color, and see how your choice aligns with the result. 

The game also incorporates elements like number predictions and size comparisons, such as big or small, adding layers of variety. These features ensure that no two sessions feel the same, keeping the experience fresh and dynamic. Players can engage in solo modes or explore community-driven challenges, fostering a sense of progression. The underlying algorithm ensures fairness, with random generations that mimic real-world unpredictability, making each prediction a thrilling test of foresight. 

What sets Tiranga Game apart is its educational undertone. By participating, users inadvertently sharpen their analytical abilities, learning about sequences and likelihoods in a playful manner. It’s not just about the immediate outcome but building a mindset for better decision-making in everyday life. This conceptual foundation makes it more than a pastime—it’s a tool for cognitive enhancement wrapped in entertainment. 

How to Get Started 

Getting involved with Tiranga Game is straightforward and user-friendly. First, users need to access the platform through its dedicated app or website. Registration requires a mobile number for verification, ensuring a secure and personalized entry point. Once registered, a simple login process grants access to the dashboard, where all features are neatly organized. 

Newcomers are greeted with tutorials that explain the basics, from selecting colors to understanding round durations. These guides are concise yet comprehensive, helping users build confidence quickly. The app is available for both Android and iOS devices, with smooth performance across various screen sizes. Regular updates keep the interface modern, incorporating user feedback to enhance navigation. 

For those new to prediction games, starting with practice modes is recommended. These allow experimentation without pressure, perfect for honing skills. As comfort grows, transitioning to standard rounds becomes natural. The platform’s 24/7 customer support is a boon, offering assistance via chat or guides for any queries. This supportive setup ensures that everyone, regardless of tech-savviness, can enjoy the game fully. 

Key Features and Gameplay Mechanics

Tiranga Game boasts a rich array of features that elevate the player experience. The color prediction core is complemented by additional modes like Win Go, which involves timed challenges, and Aviator, a dynamic progression-based activity. Rummy enthusiasts will find familiar card elements integrated, while color trading adds a strategic twist to predictions. 

One standout feature is the referral system, where inviting friends unlocks shared experiences and collaborative play. This social aspect transforms solitary sessions into group adventures, enhancing enjoyment through interaction. The platform also includes expert-guided sessions via integrated channels, providing tips from seasoned players to improve prediction accuracy. 

Advanced tools, such as AI-assisted predictions, offer insights into potential patterns without spoiling the fun. These are optional, allowing users to rely on their instincts or leverage technology for an edge. Visual elements are stunning, with high-quality graphics that make colors pop and animations that celebrate successful predictions. Audio cues add immersion, creating a multisensory environment. 

Customization options let players tailor themes and difficulty levels, ensuring the game adapts to individual preferences. Whether you prefer fast-paced rounds or thoughtful deliberations, the mechanics support diverse playstyles. This flexibility is a major draw, keeping engagement high over extended periods. 

Benefits of Playing Tiranga Game 

Engaging with Tiranga Game offers numerous advantages beyond mere entertainment. Cognitively, it boosts pattern recognition and probability assessment, skills transferable to professional and personal scenarios. Regular play can improve focus and quick thinking, as decisions must often be made under time constraints. 

Socially, the platform fosters connections. Through referrals and community features, users build networks, sharing strategies and celebrating achievements together. This communal vibe adds a layer of motivation, turning individual pursuits into collective triumphs. 

On a personal level, it’s a stress reliever. The colorful interface and satisfying prediction successes provide a positive distraction from daily routines. Many users report feeling more relaxed after sessions, attributing it to the game’s rhythmic flow. Additionally, the educational components subtly teach about randomness and strategy, making it a subtle learning tool. 

Accessibility is another benefit—play anytime, anywhere, with minimal requirements. This convenience fits modern lifestyles, allowing short bursts of fun during commutes or breaks. Overall, Tiranga Game enriches users’ lives by combining thrill with skill-building in an approachable format. 

Building a Community Around Predictions

The community aspect of Tiranga Game is vibrant and inclusive. Players from across regions connect through shared interests in color dynamics and strategic forecasting. Forums and integrated chats allow discussions on techniques, creating a knowledge-sharing ecosystem. 

Events and challenges periodically unite the community, offering themed predictions that encourage participation. These foster camaraderie, with leaderboards highlighting top performers and inspiring others. New users often find mentors in experienced players, accelerating their learning curve. 

The platform’s emphasis on positive interactions ensures a welcoming environment. Moderation tools maintain respect, while features like group predictions promote teamwork. This sense of belonging enhances loyalty, with many users returning for the social bonds as much as the gameplay. 

Beyond the app, enthusiasts form external groups to discuss trends, further expanding the community’s reach. This organic growth underscores Tiranga Game’s appeal as a hub for like-minded individuals passionate about prediction arts. 

Tips and Strategies for Success 

To excel in the Tiranga Game, adopting effective strategies is essential. Start by observing patterns over multiple rounds—note recurring colors and adjust predictions accordingly. Avoid impulsive choices; instead, base decisions on observed trends. 

Diversify your approaches: mix color predictions with number or size elements to spread risks and explore varieties. Utilize practice modes to test theories without consequences, refining techniques before main sessions. 

Stay updated with platform guides and AI tools for advanced insights. These can highlight subtle probabilities, giving an analytical boost. Time management is crucial—allocate sessions to avoid fatigue, ensuring sharp focus. 

Engage with the community for shared wisdom. Veteran tips often reveal overlooked strategies, like timing predictions during peak patterns. Patience is key; success builds gradually through consistent play and learning from outcomes. 

Remember, enjoyment is paramount. Approach each round with curiosity, turning predictions into a joyful exploration rather than a rigid task. With these strategies, users can maximize their experience and achieve satisfying results. 

The Future of Tiranga Game

Looking ahead, Tiranga Game is poised for exciting evolutions. Planned updates include new prediction modes, enhanced graphics, and deeper social integrations. These will expand the platform’s scope, attracting even more users. 

Innovation in AI will offer smarter assistance, while maintaining the core fun. Cross-platform play could enable seamless experiences across devices, broadening accessibility. Community-driven content, like user-created challenges, may further personalize the game. 

As technology advances, virtual reality elements could immerse players in colorful worlds, elevating predictions to new heights. The focus remains on user satisfaction, with feedback shaping developments. 

In essence, Tiranga Game’s future promises continued growth, blending tradition with modernity for enduring appeal. 

Conclusion 

Tiranga Game encapsulates the essence of engaging digital entertainment through its color prediction framework. With intuitive features, community spirit, and cognitive benefits, it offers a multifaceted experience. Whether for casual fun or strategic depth, it delivers value in every session. As players continue to explore its vibrant world, the game stands as a testament to innovative play in the digital age. Dive in and discover the thrill of accurate predictions today.

https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/30

Taiwo, N. B., Bert-Okonkwor, C. B. N., Mbadugha, L. C., & Fadumo, O. D. (2026). An Examination of the strategies for Effective Material Management in Building Construction Sites in Auchi, Estako Local Government, Edo State. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/31

Nkechi Benedicta Taiwo¹, Chiagozie Bertrand Nonso Bert-Okonkwor1, Lynda Chinwendu Mbadugha2 and Oluwatayomi Daniel Fadumo¹

Affliation

1.Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Anambra State.

2.Department of Architecture , Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka- Anambra State.

Corresponding Author: taiwostical@gmail.com

Abstract

A lot of problems have been known to confront material management in building construction sites in Auchi, Estako local government, Edo state; one of the key issues is adoption of improper material management practices that don’t take care of material requirements, vendor evaluation, purchasing, handling, storage and site distribution. This study therefore examines strategies for effective material management in the study area with a view to enhancing successful project delivery. This study adopted a mixed survey design approach (quantitative survey) in accordance with the research objectives. The sampling techniques adopted for the study were multi-stage sampling for non-probabilistic samples, whereas purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi). Overall, the findings indicate moderate adoption of project-decided material management practices, with greater emphasis on conventional methods rather than modern-technology-driven approaches; Stock and Waste Control (3.91), Just-in-Time Method (JIT) (3.80), Warehousing Management (3.54) etc.are some of the existing practices. The study identifies the need for a formal material management system (3.39) as the most effective measure for improving material management on construction sites. This underscores the importance of structured and possibly digital systems for tracking, monitoring, and controlling materials. Other highly ranked measures include material scheduling for contractors (3.36), training of management and staff (3.34), and effective site supervision and administration (3.30). Overall, the study concludes that the right selection of appropriate material management practice is a fundamental aspect of successful building construction project execution. Poor management of materials leads to cost overruns, time delays, and reduced quality, while proper choice of management practices ensures smooth project flow, reduced wastage, and improved profitability. Based on these findings , the study recommends that the selection of a material management practice should be based on the merits of the selection, not just on familiarity. The findings emphasize systemic, managerial, and capacity-building solutions over isolated site-level controls.

Keywords: Material management, building construction sites, material management strategies, construction professionals, construction industry

1.0 Introduction

Building is a form of shelter, and its construction is an ancient human activity which evolved as the need for shelter became an important means of survival. (Ashiwini, 2023). Constructed shelters were the means by which human beings were able to adopt themselves to a wide variety of climates and other global species. However, Akadiri(2015), emphasizes that building construction is costly and requires huge resources to erect them. This factor has made building construction a Herculean task which has attracted the interest of professionals (e.g. builders, architects, civil engineers etc.) as the most effective means of managing building construction. Consequently, Tunji-Olayemi, Emetere and Afolabi (2017) state that to successfully erect a project, a number of issues arise as regards the material usage. The study further emphasizes the critical role that efficient material management plays in enhancing project performance and sustainability. Material management is a process that coordinates planning, assessing the requirements, sourcing, purchasing, transportation, storing and controlling materials, minimizing the wastage and optimizing the profitability by reducing the cost of materials (Chetna, 2011). The result of improper handling and managing material on site during a construction process will influence the total project cost, time and quality (Ashwini, 2013).  The problem of material management is one of the key issues facing construction sites in developing countries, as discovered by many researchers. Okolie, Ngwu, and Ezeokonkwo (2015) explain that the activities identified in the supply channel (the sourcing and transmission of purchase orders to control of material wastage) are considered key to material management because they primarily affect the economy, effectiveness of material movement, productivity, optimization of profit and reduction of material cost.  Presently, building materials are poorly managed in the study area, thereby resulting in a lot of abandoned building projects. The use of the traditional material management practice often takes care of material requirements, vendor evaluation and purchasing, while details of handling, storage and site distribution are left to be decided on site. There are other forms of material management systems that enable that material to be planned, ordered, delivered and handled while recognizing the cost associated with late ordering, wastage and poor handling facilities on construction sites in Auchi. Building professionals losses in productivity from the wrong choice of material management practice, which will eventually affect profit margins.

A lot of problems have been identified confronting effective material management; Okolie, Ngwu, and Ezeokonkwo (2015) explain that certain activities in the supply channel (the sourcing and transmission of purchase orders up to control of material wastage) often affect material management in terms of economy, material movement, productivity, profit and material cost. The study therefore recommends proper execution and control of standard materials delivered within time, budget and doesn’t compromise quality. The increasing cost of erecting a building as a result of poor material management practices during the construction process is worrisome. There is concern among building construction practitioners and professionals that the inherent dangers of poor management of materials in building construction affect the quality of building. (Kadiri, 2025). Most of the time, the contractor finds himself not meeting up with the budget because of lack of materials. The human cost is usually associated with a poorly delivered building and the cost of reconstruction and managing it is usually un_quantifiable. The challenges both have implications in building delivery and building management practices, which has prompted continuous research into their causes. Also, Akadiri (2015) study on understanding the barriers affecting the selection of sustainable materials in building projects only emphasized barriers that affect the selection of sustainable materials in building projects without highlighting the consequences of the use of such materials in both the project delivery and the safety of the project. This study therefore examines strategies to minimize these challenges and enhance effective material management practices on construction sites in Auchi. The research work is of immense benefit to future researchers and professionals in the field of building construction as a reference material for material management, and provides a cost-effective solution that ensures timely completion of projects and eliminates project abandonment.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2 1 Discussing Existing Material Management Practices in Building Construction

Effective management of materials contributes significantly to the success of the project. There are major issues which affect materials management activities, such as constraints on storage areas, site logistics with regard to materials handling and distribution, and also ordering and delivery of materials to the construction site. According to Canter (2009), material management practices are categorized into five processes, which are planning, procurement, logistics, handling and stock and waste control. Ocheoha (2013), also identify practices such as the just-in-time (JIT) method, Economies Order Quantity (EOQ), warehousing management, and recovery and recycling method as part of materials management practices that should be taken seriously, and these practices are detailed below:

1.  Planning practices: The process of planning construction methods has been defined as “understanding what has to be built, then establishing the right method, in the most economical way to meet the client’s requirements” (Barrie and Paulson,2010).  This is a detailed scheme for achieving an objective for certain work tasks. In the case of materials, there is a need for appropriate planning, which must be done concurrently with engineering, construction, and other project plans. He also mentions that material planning will provide guides for all the subsequent activities and could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers setting up and maintaining the records of each part used in each plant to determine target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. As a result, excellent management of the materials record will help the flow of materials at the site in order to avoid several problems such as materials out of stock and materials that have not been delivered. Material planning would provide subsequent activities and could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers setting up and maintaining the records of each part used in each plant to determine target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. As a result, excellent management of the materials record will help the flow of materials at the site in order to avoid several problems such as materials out of stock and materials that have not been delivered. Material planning would provide guides for all the subsequent activities and this could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers the set-up and maintenance of records and determines the target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. Planning of access and routing of materials within a construction site has an important implication for the development of an effective materials management strategy (Waziri,2016), particularly in terms of increasing productivity and profit and facilitating the timely completion of construction projects. Planning and programming of work should include strategies, tactics, and tools for managing the design and construction delivery processes and for controlling key factors to ensure the client receives a facility that matches their expectations and function as it is intended to function. The requirement for efficient materials planning is to increase the productivity and profit of the company, and facilitate the completion of construction projects. Thus, better planning of raw materials on site can help to eliminate project delays and reduce activities.

2.Procurement processes: The term procurement encompasses a wide range of activities that includes purchasing of equipment, materials, labour and services required for construction and implementation of a project (Barrie and Paulson,2007). The objective of procurement in materials management is to provide quality materials at the right time and place, and at an agreed budget. Akbar Rasouli Kamran Behdinan and Salmon Farsi, (2016) state that procurement is about organizing the purchasing of materials and issuing delivery schedules to suppliers and following-up, to make sure that suppliers deliver on time. Canter (2009) states that failure in the purchasing process or in organizing buying functions results in:(a) over-ordering of materials (wastage problems);(b)Over-payments for materials (inadequate administration procedure);(c)Loss of benefits (lack of skilled negotiating procedures); and (d)Lack of knowledge (when and where the best service/source might be available at any particular time).

Purchasing in building construction involves obtaining all materials, equipment, and services needed to execute a project efficiently, on time, and within budget. It ensures that the right materials are delivered at the right quantity, quality, time, and cost, aligning with project specifications and construction schedules. The process involves (i)Identification of Material Needs from a work schedule or bill of quantities (BOQ) using a material requisition form. (ii)Approval of Material Requisition (iii) Supplier or Vendor Selection (iv)Request for Quotation (RFQ) (v)Quotation Evaluation and Negotiations(vi.) Issuance of Purchase Order (PO) (vii.)  Delivery and Inspection of Materials (viii)Storage and Record Keeping(ix) Invoice Verification and Payment(x)Supplier Performance Evaluation

┌────────────────────────┐

 │        Material Need                                     │

 │         Identified by Site                               │

 │        Engineer                                              │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │        Requisition Approval                          │

 │         by Project Manager                           │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │        Supplier Selection &                          │

 │        Request for Quotation                        │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │        Evaluate & Negotiate                         │

 │        Quotations           │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │        Issue Purchase Order                          │

 │        (PO) to Supplier                        │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │                    Material Delivery &               │

 │                     Inspection at Site                   │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │                     Storage & Record                   │

 │                    Keeping             │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │                    Invoice Verification                │

 │                    Payment Processing                │

 └──────────┬──────────────┘

 ┌──────────▼──────────────┐

 │        Supplier Evaluation                            │

 │        for Future Projects                              │

 └─────────────────────────┘

Figure 2.1: Typical Purchasing Procedure in Building Construction

Source: Hohns (2017)

3.  Logistics: Logistics is a concept that emphasizes movement, and it encompasses planning, implementing, and controlling the flow and storage of all goods from raw materials to the finished product to meet customer requirements. Raw materials for construction are usually varied, bulky and heavy and require proper handling in the supply process. Consequently, the construction industry requires active movement of materials from the suppliers to the production area in both the factory and the work site. Experienced traffic personnel can have a positive impact on the execution of the project while minimizing transportation costs (Ahuja and Dozzi 2021). The primary focus of the logistics concept in construction projects is to improve coordination and communication between project participations during the design and construction phases, particularly in the materials flow control process (Agapiou etal., 2021). He also mentions that problems arise in the materials flow control process, which includes delays in material supply, due to some materials purchased just before they are required and waste of materials during storage, handling and transporting when procured in large quantities without complying with the production needs on site. Previous research suggested that the routing of materials is one of the main causes which affect cost and time during construction projects. Hence, the factors that should be taken into consideration during the logistics process for effective materials’ management include: optimum forecasting of materials movement (Mahdjoubi and Yang, 2001).

4.  Handling: Materials handling provides movement to ensure that materials are located and that a systematic approach is required in designing the system. Handling of materials is the flow component that provides for their movement and placement. The importance of appropriate handling of materials is highlighted by the fact that they are expensive and engage critical decisions. Due to the frequency of handling materials, there are quality considerations when designing a material handling system. The selection of the material handling equipment is an important function as it can enhance the production process, provide effective utilization of the workforce, increase production and improve system flexibility (Chan, 2002). The importance of appropriate handling of materials is highlighted by the fact that they are expensive and involve critical decisions. The material handling equipment selection is an important function in the design of a material handling system in order to enhance the production process, provide effective utilization of human power, increase production, and improve system flexibility. In addition, materials scheduling is also an essential part of handling materials on site, which has several benefits (Ezeh and Etodike, 2017), such as: showing the quantities involved in each particular operation; providing a key to the distribution of materials on site; and demonstrating useful way of checking quantities required by subcontractors, etc. Materials must be delivered to site undamaged and without any wastage. The most common problem associated with materials supply is inadequate unloading and handling facilities, which relates to a high proportion of wastage (Canter,2009). Therefore, handling with safety during movement of materials on site, which reduces the percentage of material wastage and finally fosters significant improvement, can often increase the total system productivity.

5. Stock and Waste Control: Delivery of the bulk of the construction materials requires proper management of the stock control. Stock control is a technique to ensure all items such as raw materials, processed materials, components for assembly, consumable stores, general stores, maintenance materials and spares, work in progress and finished products are available when required. Construction activity can generate an enormous amount of waste (Teo and Loosemore, 2001) and materials waste has been recognized as a major problem in the construction industry. They also mentioned that construction materials waste, in the USA contributes approximately 29%In the UK it contributes more than 50% and in Australia it contributes 20–30%. This is evidence to control construction materials in a good way during the construction process. The cause of waste in construction projects indicates that waste can arise at any stage of the construction process from inception, right through the design, construction and operation of the built facility. Therefore, waste can be reduced through the careful consideration of the need for minimization and better reuse of materials in both the design and construction phases (Dainty and Brooke, 2004). Material storage on site requires close attention in order to avoid waste, loss and any damage to materials which would affect the operations on the construction project. Problems often arise during materials supply because of improper storage and protection facilities. Previous studies have identified that building materials often require a large storage capacity which is rarely available on site (Agapiou et al., 2021).  There are a few considerations to be taken into account in the planning of the storage space, such as timing of the initial buy, and historical information and experience. Materials management on site should seek to reduce loss of profit due to theft, damage and wastage, as well as running out of stock. Therefore, the requirements for storage space should be taken into consideration from the initial stage of the construction process.

6. Just-In-Time Method (JIT): The acronym JIT has been highly visible since late 1980, as manufacturing attempted to meet competitive challenges by adopting newly emerging management theories and techniques, referred to as Lean production. Again, Just in Time (JIT) manufacturing is described as a system that helps in making an appropriate order of materials available to each operating unit at the right time in the right quantity. JIT is a systematic concept consisting of JIT purchasing, JIT transportation and JIT production. These three elements combine to create a material handling system that avoids waste and minimizes inventory investment. The technique has changed employees’ beliefs, attitudes, work habits and awareness of quality assurance. It is an operating management philosophy of continuous improvement in which non-value-adding activities (or waste) are identified and removed for the purposes of reducing cost. The objectives of JIT are to reduce processing time, eliminate waste, have respect for people and cost minimization and these can be achieved if this hold zero inventory; a system known as keen supply chain. The summary of the objectives of the supply chain-oriented organizations is to improve productivity by minimizing the cost of shady products. The following factors can be considered for the required improvements from Procom and product design, thing slate-of -the-art equipment and technology, holding zero inventories, reducing lead-time of supply of material, reducing batch size, using a pull production system, simplifying factory layout.

7. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ): This determines the amount of order that minimizes total variable costs required to order and hold inventory. The economic order quantity (BOQ) refers to the order size that will result in the lowest total of ordering and carrying costs for an item of inventory. If a firm places unnecessary orders, it will incur unneeded order costs. If a firm places too few orders, it must maintain large stocks of goods and will have excessive carrying costs. It is recommended that the assumptions of economic order quantity are to: deal with only one material whose demand is assumed to be completely predetermined and demand remains constant over a period of time; holding and ordering rented costs per unit remain constant during the period of one year, irrespective of the order quantity. No stock out is allowed and ordered materials arrive instantaneously and the lead time, which is the time between ordering and receiving goods, is instantaneous and is equal to 0, and all materials ordered are delivered.

8. Recovering and Recycling: Recycling is the process of collecting materials that are often considered trash and remanufactured tin for new products that can be resold or used again. Recovering simply refers to the process of retrieving the disposed or about to be disposed of and making it ready for recycling. That is, removal of materials from the solid waste stream for sale, use, or reuse as raw materials (Monczka, 2002).

9. Warehousing Management: Chee-Chen, 2009 opines that warehousing can be defined as a storage facility used for storing construction material and supplies. He continued by saying that it serves as a central location for receiving, storing and distributing materials needed for construction projects. All organizations have a minimum level of inventory they keep for future operation. Whether they operate JIT or a traditional delivery system where inventory is kept, it is typically referred to as a warehouse. Although, in many logistical arrangements, the role of a warehouse is more properly viewed as a switching facility as contrasted to a storage facility, i.e. effective distribution systems should be designed not to hold inventory for an excessive length of time, there are times when inventory storage is economical. In the same vein, warehouse management means effective and efficient storage and provision of required materials to ensure smooth operations. Decentralized warehousing permits materials to be stored in the right places to facilitate production operations and provide quality customer service. Decentralization of warehouses is a common practice of large organizations that have different plants and product lines scattered over the country. The importance of warehousing include: a reduction in transportation costs; warehousing and the associated inventory are added expenses, but they may be traded off at a lower cost realized if JIT transportation is adopted; achieving smooth production—warehousing to some levels of inventories make materials available at all time for production process, hence, it helps to avoid stock-out of materials; coordination of supply and demand-firms that experience highly seasonal production and sales most times have problem in coordinating supply with demand of materials, warehouse helps them to even out supply and demand of materials over a given period; enjoy quantity purchase discounts- availability of warehouse encourages bulk purchases at discounted prices and maintaining a reliable source of supply-companies that have where to store materials always purchase materials and have regular supplier(s).

2.2    Strategies for Effective Material Management in Building Construction Sites

Material management has been an issue of concern in the construction industry.40% of the time lost on site can be attributed to bad management, lack of materials when needed, poor identification of materials and inadequate storage. The need for an ineffective material planning system has become mandatory. Some companies have increased the efficiency of their activities in order to remain competitive and secure future work. Many other firms have reduced overheads and undertaken productivity improvement strategies. According to Okorocha (2013), Effective Material Management should focus on the system adopted for pricing materials issues which largely depend upon the nature of the material, the undertaking concerned and the circumstances which require to be taken into consideration. These areas might be taken care of: the Materials Schedule for the Contract on Hand, the Bill of Materials, Purchase Requisition, Purchasing of Materials, Issuing of Materials for Use, and Use of Material on Site. In order to achieve good materials’ management on building projects, Calistus (2013) opines that the following areas have to be taken very seriously, i.e. Training of management and other staff, inventory control of materials on site, ensuring proper planning, monitoring, control. Management, supervision and administration of sites, provision of adequate storage of materials, proper usage of materials, materials schedule for the contract on hand, provision and accessibility of site layout and attention to weather conditions. To achieve good materials’ management on a building project, Calistus (2013) opines that the following areas have to be taken very seriously: i.e. Training of management and other staff, inventory control of materials on site, ensuring proper planning, monitoring and control. Alwi, Hampson, and Mohammed (2009), recommend the following effective materials’ management of building projects, which includes: management, supervision and administration of sites, provision of adequate storage of materials, proper usage of materials, material schedule for the contract on hand, materials delivery, provision and accessible site layout, Attention to weather conditions.

1.         Training of Both Management and Other Staff: It is necessary to provide education and training to encourage and promote the benefit of reuse, recycling and reducing material consumption. However, cost savings for reuse to reduce material consumption are difficult to measure, in which the material can be used and reduce consumption several times. It is more effective to provide training and education among staff, and involve employees’ participation in implementing waste management. They pointed out that employees’ participation could only be effective with genuine support from management.

2. Inventory Control of Materials on Site: It involves taking note of the use and inventory of materials on site and recordings, i.e. the loading and off-loading, transit and handling of materials. It is recommended that arrangements be made for materials to arrive on time. When a construction material is delivered to a site, it should be checked for damage, quantity, quality and specification. It involves physical control of materials, preservation of stores, minimization of obsolescence and damage through timely disposal and efficient handling, maintenance of store records, proper location and stocking. Stores are also responsible for the physical verification of stocks and reconciling them with book figures. The inventory control covers aspects such as setting inventory levels, ABC analysis, fixing economical ordering quantities, setting safety stock levels, lead time analysis and reporting.

3. Ensuring Proper Planning, Monitoring and Control: Construction site management practice is the process of determining, analyzing, devising and organizing all resources necessary to undertake a construction project. It also includes monitoring and controlling the planned actions towards successful project delivery. Some of the specific activities include the production of a Gantt chart, network analysis, method statements, resource leveling, progress reports and exception reports. The core element of planning is the establishment of a program which reflects the planning process in relation to real-time. Construction planning is the total process of determining the method, sequence, labor, plant, and equipment required to undertake a building project. All but the simplest tasks require planning in order to be accomplished with the best utilization of time and resources.

4.  Management, Supervision and Administration of Sites: Supervision is the direction of people at work and management is the planning and control of the work process on a construction site. Supervisory, management and administration of site are gradually spread throughout the earth because it is a more efficient way of accomplishing work. All work requires the coordination of effort; this is accomplished by giving workers assigned tasks and assigned time in which they are to accomplish these tasks, but instruction is not enough. A clear, specific instruction on what is to be done, monitor the worker in the course of their efforts, Jimoh, (2012).  This is the arrangement on construction sites that lends to effective information dissemination and exchange. Information such as correspondence, minutes, labor allocations, payroll, progress reporting, notices or claims, instructions, drawing register and technical information flows among stakeholders, for processing and further actions during and after project construction.

5.    Provision of Adequate Storage of Materials: Kasim (2005), opines that material storage on site requires close attention in order to avoid waste, loss and any damage to materials which would affect the operation of the construction project. There must be a proper storage facility provided for materials on site. Some materials are usually not stored in sheds or locked-up buildings, and double handling of materials because of improper or indecision about the proper storage facility constitutes waste. Old stock must be available for use after fresh delivery is made, and these materials must be placed in such a way that damage will not be done to them by human activities or traffic on site. Bagged materials such as cement should be stored in a place that is free from moisture.

6 Proper Usage of Materials: The use of materials is the flow component that provides for their movement and placement. Material usage can be defined as the provision of proper handling techniques either manually or mechanically for the components held on site during the construction process. Adequate care must be taken to prevent wastage when working with materials on a construction project. The assembly or the installation process involves the practical incorporated into the project of materials, depending on the skills of the workers involved. Materials on the job site at times may have had a little defect due to poor storage or poor quality on the part of the manufacturer.

7 Materials Schedule for the Contractor Hand: It has been established that the preparation of a good materials schedule helps a long way in solving the problem of material handling on site. This is prepared at the contract stage of the building contract by an estimator and also by the contactor in order to know accurately how much material to mobilize the site. This entails accurately detailing the type, the size of materials and all other possible information regarding the required materials and the quantities and date on which they should be delivered. Materials schedules are valuable to the buyer for ordering and also to the site supervisor to ensure that materials, when delivered, are allocated or unloaded at or for the projects or building elements for which they are specified for ordered productivity. Project schedules should establish guidelines as to when and how the project should be executed, schedule requirements need to be communicated and properly managed throughout the entire project. The purpose of scheduling is to organize and allocate the resources, equipment and labour with the construction projects tasks over a set period of time.

8 Provision and Accessibility Site Layout: Construction site layout involves identifying, sizing, and placing temporary facilities within the boundaries of the construction site (Heap, 2007). These temporary facilities range from simple lay down areas to warehouses, fabrication shops, maintenance shops, batch plants, and residence facilities. Required temporary facilities and their areas are dependent on many factors including the project type, scale, design, location, and organization of construction work. A detailed planning of the site layout and location of temporary facilities can enable the management to make considerable improvement by minimizing travel time, waiting time, and increasing worker morale by showing a better and safer work environment.

9          Attention to Weather Conditions: According to Muhwezl (2012), severe weather conditions were ranked in the first positions at asthmas. Significant was teat tribute on projects in the respective categories, exposing materials to inclement weather such as steel bars which rust and may get damaged. Using research results conducted by (Wahab and Lawal, 2011). Adverse weather is considered one of the main factors causing delays and cost overruns on construction projects (Osama and Khaled,2002).

Literature Gap: There are still gaps in literature on existing material management practices specific to the study area and measures to manage the observed effects of poor material management practices in the study area and this is what this study filled.

3.0 Methodology

This work adopts a mixed survey design approach (quantitative and qualitative survey) in accordance with the research question and hypotheses. A combination of qualitative and quantitative survey was used to collect data related to the objectives of this research. These are data which were generated through questionnaire and direct observation. The population of this study is 401, which constitutes all site-based professionals like Quantity Surveyors, Builders and Architects in the study area, duly registered in Edo state with the relevant professional bodies.

Table 3:1 Total Population of the Study

No of Practicing Builders in Auchi	148	Source: NIOB Auchi  Branch
No of Practicing Quantity surveyors  In Auchi	128	Source: NIQS Auchi  Branch
No of Practicing Architects  in Auchi	125	Source NIA Auchi  Branch
TOTAL	401

     Source: NIOB, NIQS, NIA  Auchi Branch(2024)

The sample size of the study was 200 respondents using the Taro yamane formula was adopted out of the entire population of 401 practicing builders, practicing quantity surveyors, and practicing Architects all in Auchi (Table 3.1). The sampling techniques for the study were multi-stage sampling for non-probabilistic sample whereby purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi).

4.0 FINDINGS

4.1       Response Rate

 The sample size of the study was 200 respondents out of the entire population of 401 made up of practicing builders, practicing quantity surveyors, and practicing Architects all in Auchi (Table 3.1). The sampling techniques for the study were multi-stage sampling for a non-probabilistic sample whereby purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi). A total of 401 questionnaires were administered, 250 (62%) were retrieved while 200 (80%) were validly and returned. The high response rate recorded by the researcher could be attributed to the data collection procedures. For instance, the researcher pre-notified the potential participants for the survey, the researcher administered the questionnaire with the help of research assistants and follow-up calls were also made to clarify queries as well as to prompt the respondents to fill in the questionnaires.

4.2 Testing/Ranks of Variables

Question 1: What are the existing material management practices adopted by building construction companies in the study area?

Table: 4:1 Existing material management practices adopted by building construction companies in the study area   

A. Planning (Rank 1, Mean Score: 3.98, Std Dev: 1.07): Planning emerged as the most highly ranked practice among the respondents. With a mean score of 3.98, it indicates that most construction companies prioritize careful preparation and scheduling of materials before and during project execution. The relatively low standard deviation (1.07) suggests that respondents had a fairly consistent view regarding the importance of planning. Effective planning ensures that materials are available when needed, reducing delays and inefficiencies on construction sites.

B. Stock and Waste Control (Rank 2, Mean Score: 3.91, Std Dev: 1.41): The second-highest ranked practice is stock and waste control, highlighting that construction companies are conscious of minimizing wastage and maintaining optimal inventory levels. A mean score of 3.91 demonstrates that the companies recognize the financial and operational benefits of controlling stock and reducing material losses. The standard deviation of 1.41 indicates some variability in perception, possibly due to differences in company sizes or management systems.

C. Just-in-Time Method (JIT) (Rank 3, Mean Score: 3.80, Std Dev: 1.12): The Just-in-Time method, ranked third, reflects the adoption of modern material management techniques. By receiving materials only as they are needed, companies can reduce storage costs and the risk of overstocking. The mean score of 3.80 is high, suggesting moderate to strong implementation, while the relatively low standard deviation (1.12) indicates general agreement among respondents about its effectiveness.

D. Warehousing Management (Rank 4, Mean Score: 3.54, Std Dev: 1.16): Warehousing management ranks fourth, emphasizing the importance of organized storage systems for materials. Companies with proper warehousing practices ensure materials are safe, accessible, and well-documented. A mean of 3.54 indicates that while important, it is not as prioritized as planning or stock control. The standard deviation of 1.16 shows relatively consistent opinions across the sample.

E. Procurement (Rank 5, Mean Score: 3.44, Std Dev: 1.29): Procurement ranks sixth, showing that while acquiring materials is essential, it is slightly less emphasized compared to other practices. A mean score of 3.44 demonstrates that respondents acknowledge its importance but may face challenges such as supplier reliability or cost issues. The standard deviation (1.29) suggests a reasonable spread of opinions among respondents.

F. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) (Rank 6, Mean Score: 3.39, Std Dev: 1.38): Economic Order Quantity, a quantitative approach to determine the optimal order size, is ranked fifth. This reflects moderate adoption among building companies. With a mean score of 3.39, EOQ is recognized as a useful tool for reducing costs and avoiding excess stock, but it may not be widely implemented due to technical or operational constraints. The standard deviation of 1.38 indicates moderate variability in understanding or application.

G. Logistics (Rank 7, Mean Score: 3.35, Std Dev: 1.60): Logistics is ranked seventh, which points to moderate implementation in material transportation and handling. The mean score of 3.35 indicates that construction companies recognize its role in timely delivery of materials, but the high standard deviation (1.60) suggests significant variation among companies, possibly reflecting differing levels of expertise or resource availability.

H Recovering and Recycling (Rank 8, Mean Score: 3.21, Std Dev: 1.43): Recovering and recycling practices are less emphasized, ranking eighth. A mean score of 3.21 shows that although some companies adopt sustainable practices, it is not yet mainstream. The standard deviation of 1.43 indicates a moderate level of disagreement among respondents, perhaps due to differing priorities or awareness levels about sustainability.

I.  Handling (Rank 9, Mean Score: 3.11, Std Dev: 1.44): Handling of materials is ranked tenth, indicating that it is given relatively lower priority. While proper handling is crucial for preventing damage and loss, it appears that companies may rely on other practices like planning and stock control to indirectly manage handling. The higher standard deviation (1.44) suggests differing views on its significance.

Research Question 2: Suggest and recommend effective measures for managing materials in building construction sites in the study area

Table: 4.2: Effective measures for managing materials in building construction sites in the study area        

S/N	Statements	5	4	3	2	1	SUM	MEAN SCORE	STD	RANK
1	Training of both management and staff	44	49	54	38	15	699	3.34	15.18	3rd
2	Inventory control of material on site	58	34	31	43	34	639	3.19	11.02	5th
3	Ensuring proper planning, monitoring and control	42	23	24	70	41	555	2.77	19.04	7th
4	Management, supervision and administration of sites	44	46	54	38	18	660	3.30	13.56	4th
5	Provision of adequate storage of materials	38	56	17	85	4	639	3.19	32.06	5th
6	Proper usage of materials	29	17	56	39	59	518	2.59	17.8	11th
7	Material schedule for the contractor hand	63	45	35	15	42	672	3.36	17.38	2nd
8	Provision and accessibility site layout	42	20	24	70	44	546	2.73	19.85	8th
9	Attention to weather conditions	23	60	39	67	11	617	3.08	23.78	6th
10	Importance of material for a project	33	20	65	50	32	522	2.61	17.59	9th
11	Need for a material management system	66	45	32	15	42	678	3.39	18.67	1st

Source: Field Survey, (2025)

1. Need for a Material Management System (Rank 1^st, Mean = 3.39, STD = 18.67): This measure received the highest rank, indicating that respondents perceive having a formal material management system as the most critical strategy for effective material management. A structured system ensures tracking of materials, reduces wastage, improves procurement efficiency, and helps in accountability. The relatively high standard deviation suggests some variability in responses, indicating that while most agree, there may be differences in how effectively such systems are implemented on site. Construction companies should adopt digital inventory and tracking systems to standardize material management.

B. Material Schedule for the Contractor Hand (Rank 2^nd, Mean = 3.36, STD = 17.38): This measure scored highly, making it the second most important factor in effective material management. A material schedule ensures that contractors know precisely what materials are needed, when, and in what quantity, reducing wastage and delays. Its high mean score indicates strong consensus among respondents, while a moderate standard deviation shows some variability in opinions but overall agreement on its importance. Prioritizing proper material scheduling improves site efficiency and cost management.

C. D. Training of Both Management and Staff (Rank 3^rd, Mean = 3.34, STD = 15.18): Training staff and management is critical for improving material handling, reducing errors, and enhancing project efficiency. The relatively high rank and mean score suggest that respondents see capacity building as a vital tool for effective material management. A lower STD reflects moderate agreement on its importance. Continuous training programs should be instituted to improve knowledge and skills related to materials handling.

D. Management, Supervision, and Administration of Sites (Rank 4^th, Mean = 3.30, STD = 13.56): Effective supervision and administrative control on construction sites play a crucial role in ensuring that materials are used efficiently and according to plan. It ranked fourth, indicating its substantial but slightly lower perceived importance compared to scheduling and training. Adequate supervision ensures adherence to project schedules and material usage protocols, minimizing losses.

E. Inventory Control of Material on Site & Provision of Adequate Storage of Materials (Rank 5^th, Mean = 3.19, STD = 11.02 & 32.06 respectively): Inventory control involves tracking materials from delivery to consumption, while storage provision ensures that materials are protected from damage and theft. Both measures scored equally in mean score but differed in standard deviation; storage showed high variability (STD = 32.06), indicating differing perceptions about its effectiveness. Maintaining proper inventory systems and storage facilities is important but may require site-specific adaptation.

F. Attention to Weather Conditions (Rank 6^th, Mean = 3.08, STD = 23.78): Weather can significantly affect materials on-site, causing deterioration or damage if not managed properly. It was ranked moderately high, reflecting recognition of its role in protecting materials. The high STD indicates some disagreement among respondents, possibly due to variations in site locations or climate considerations. Construction sites should implement protective measures against adverse weather for sensitive materials.

F. Ensuring Proper Planning, Monitoring, and Control (Rank 7^th, Mean = 2.77, STD = 19.04): Although planning, monitoring, and control are fundamental management practices, respondents ranked this relatively lower. This may suggest that while these practices are essential, their effectiveness in directly managing materials might be perceived as secondary to specific interventions like training or material scheduling. Strengthening site planning and control mechanisms will still benefit overall material management, but more tangible measures may take precedence.

G. Provision and Accessibility of Site Layout (Rank 8^th, Mean = 2.73, STD = 19.85): An organized site layout facilitates smooth material flow and reduces handling losses. Its lower rank indicates that respondents may view layout accessibility as less critical compared to scheduling or training. Site layout optimization should complement other key material management strategies.

5.0 CONCLUSION

The descriptive statistics reveal that building construction companies in the study area predominantly rely on traditional material management practices, with planning emerging as the most widely adopted practice, contractors place strong emphasis on advanced preparation and scheduling of materials, as well as growing awareness of waste reduction and efficient inventory management. However, there is limited adoption of sustainable practices and weak institutional mechanisms for continuous improvement. Since poor management of materials leads to cost overruns, time delays, and reduced quality, there is a need for efficient management that ensures smooth project flow, reduced wastage, and improved profitability through “Waste Reduction and Recycling” as well as “Monitoring and Control Systems” recorded the lowest mean value

6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusions of this research, the following recommendations are made:

1. Adopt Digital Material Management Systems: Construction firms should integrate modern digital tools and software such as ERP systems, bar-coding, and inventory tracking technologies to improve accuracy, transparency, and accountability in material handling.

2. Strengthen Planning and Scheduling: Proper planning and scheduling of material procurement and usage should be implemented before project commencement to prevent shortages, waste, and delays.

7.0 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

This research has contributed to the body of knowledge by providing empirical evidence on the state of material management practices in Auchi, Etsako West Local Government Area, a region with limited prior academic documentation on this topic. It bridges the knowledge gap between theoretical material management frameworks and their practical application in rural and semi-urban Nigerian construction environments.

i) Acknowledgments

Special acknowledgment to everyone who made this study a success and to the Departments of Building, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State, for the support of data collection.

(II)Disclosure of Conflict of Interest

 Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.

 (iii) Statement of Ethical Approval

All relevant ethical approval for this study has been obtained and maintained.

(iv) Statement of informed Consent

All necessary informed consent were obtained.

(v)Funding

This research received no external funding.

(Vi)Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

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Follow Me, Then Walk It Out

Jesus never recruited spectators. He called people out of boats, tax booths, and back alleys and put dust on their feet. Discipleship in the Bible begins with proximity: walking close enough to hear breath and see scars. Growth was not measured by information retained but by obedience practiced. Nets were dropped. Tables abandoned. Lives re-ordered around a voice that refused to stay theoretical. This was not a classroom. It was pavement and friction.

Formation Happens Under Pressure

Jesus shaped leaders by placing them where weakness surfaced. Hunger in the wilderness. Fear of open water. Failure in public. Scripture shows spiritual growth emerging under strain, not comfort. The call to follow carried cost, and that cost exposed what ruled the heart. Disciples learned prayer by watching Jesus withdraw exhausted. They learned courage by watching Him advance toward Jerusalem anyway. Leadership was formed where trust was tested. Growth hurt. That was the point.

A Different Kind of Authority

Jesus redefined leadership by emptying it of ego. Authority flowed downward through service, not upward through control. Feet were washed. Children were welcomed. The overlooked were centered. In this framework, the concept of discipleship refuses celebrity and embraces stewardship. Leaders were not trained to build platforms but to carry burdens. Influence came from faithfulness in small places. Power bent low. Strength looked like a sacrifice.

From Belief to Obedience

Biblical discipleship never stopped at confession. It moved toward action that cost something real. Teachings were meant to be practiced before they were explained. The understanding of what a disciple iscannot be separated from daily choices, how money is handled, words are spoken, anger restrained, and forgiveness extended. Faith showed up in kitchens, workplaces, and strained relationships. Truth lived there.
Right in the mess.

The Work Continues

The Mentoring Project exists for this exact terrain. It’s free Life Skills guides address more than 100 everyday struggles: conflict, fear, leadership fatigue, decision-making, stewardship, and endurance. These guides are built for lived faith, not shelf display. They are written to be read, listened to, and carried into ordinary pressure-filled moments.
Discipleship still walks.
Visit The Mentoring Project website to read or listen to the free Life Skills guides and take the next faithful step forward.

Akorede, S. N., & Obenda, M. I. (2026). Factors Influencing Insufficient Facility and Management of Public Stadiums in Nigeria: An Overview. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/29

Seun N. Akorede, Moses I. Obenda

Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education, Faculty of Education, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria

Corresponding Author’s Email Id: t.omali@yahoo.com

Abstract

Stadiums serve as venues capable of uniting thousands of individuals, and fostering a remarkable architectural experience. Sadly, many of Nigeria’s public infrastructures including stadiums have significantly declined, highlighting the extent of neglect they have faced over time. The slow or irreversible decline of nearly all public facilities illustrates the degree of neglect they have experienced throughout the years. This research provides a review of the factors affecting inadequate management and maintenance of public stadiums in Nigeria. The secondary data utilized in this study comes from various published sources. The relevant material includes research articles sourced from credible electronic platforms. In addition to research articles, grey literatures were similarly referenced. The findings pinpoint political, economic, social, and technical issues that lead to substandard facilities and inadequate management in Nigeria’s public stadiums. Consequently, the review advocates for a thorough strategy that entails professionalizing management, reinforcing policy and accountability, diversifying funding sources and operations, along with implementing an organized, proactive maintenance plan (both preventive and scheduled).

Keywords: Deterioration, Facilities, Maintenance culture, Stadium, Sustained Maintenance

1. Introduction

Public sports facilities primarily provide open areas for regular fitness activities. They highlight distinct public welfare traits [1] and currently serve as the foundation for healthy living in our nation. They also play critical role in government initiatives aimed at constructing a “sports superpower” [2]. Specifically, stadiums occupy a unique position within the cultural, economic, and social frameworks of nations, thus holding substantial significance [3]. Beyond hosting sporting events, stadiums function as places for shared experiences, economic catalysts, and identity centers. These sites not only accommodate football matches but also host major events like concerts, religious gatherings, and political rallies.

Investing in sports infrastructure involves substantial financial commitments and represents valuable national resources that convey an investment narrative. Nigeria’s increasing prominence in global football has largely been fueled by investments in football infrastructure alongside the achievements of its athletes in major European leagues. The country has heavily invested in the construction of stadiums [4]. Such expenditures aimed at showcasing modernization and attracting elite competitions have, at times, been influenced by political factors. Unfortunately, the rate of construction has outstripped effective management practices. Consequently, this situation calls for heightened managerial focus, which is vital for ensuring development. Investors, whether public or private, generally anticipate significant returns on their sports-related investments. So, effective management serves as a crucial element for maximizing returns on investment in sports infrastructure, highlighting the increasing importance of stadium management in many nations [5]. One of the key goals in facility management is to lower maintenance expenses while sustaining the quality of the services offered [6]. Management in the realm of sports infrastructure pertains to overseeing sports facilities.

Throughout various periods, Nigeria has hosted some of Africa’s premier sports stadiums. Currently, however, the nation lacks adequate operational stadium facility, a situation exacerbated by a severe absence of maintenance culture resulting from governmental negligence. Public infrastructure in Nigeria frequently suffers from inadequate upkeep [7], leading to their deterioration and resulting flaws at different levels. Although the upkeep of stadium amenities can be both expensive and complex, it is essential if any investment is to be justified. The decline of stadium infrastructure in Nigeria reflects deeper systemic issues that need to be identified and addressed. Among the country’s more than 40 stadiums, only around a dozen are deemed suitable for rehabilitation for international events. These include the National Stadium in Lagos, MKO Abiola Stadium in Abuja, Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium in Enugu, U.J. Esuene Stadium in Calabar, Ahmadu Bello Stadium in Kaduna, and Liberation Stadium in Port Harcourt. Additionally, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa Stadium in Bauchi, Sam Ogbemudia Stadium in Benin, Liberty Stadium in Ibadan, Adamasingba Stadium in Ibadan, Teslim Balogun Stadium in Lagos, and Adokie Aimiesiamaka Stadium in Port Harcourt complete the list. Once a stunning venue when inaugurated in 1972, the Lagos National Stadium now represents a national embarrassment. The Godswill Akpabio Stadium in Uyo is regarded by Africa’s football governing body, CAF, and the world football governing body FIFA, as Nigeria’s sole international-standard facility, despite the existence of multiple multi-billion-naira venues built for international events. This underscores the country’s inadequate commitment to sports development. As a result, all the recent international football match involving Nigeria takes place at the stadium in Uyo. Thus, despite the numerous facilities distributed across the nation, Nigeria operates effectively as a one-stadium country, facing the risk of being prohibited from hosting international events if the Godswill Akpabio Stadium developed any issue.

It is noteworthy that modern tools have significant influence on facility management. For instance, the adoption of advanced technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) [8] is essential for resource management. GIS is commonly used for the collection, storage, alteration, analysis, visualization, and presentation of georeferenced data [9,10]. It enables the handling of spatially referenced data through manipulation, analysis, statistical applications, and modeling of spatial information [11, 12]. Recently, advancements in GIS, bolstered by big data technology, have found extensive application in geographic information mapping, as well as in the collection and analysis of spatial data. These technologies offer strong support for both theoretical and practical research concerning public sports facilities [13]. By leveraging the importance of GIS, integrating multi-source geographic data, and utilizing data integration techniques [14], it has become feasible to achieve an accurate spatial understanding of the supply and demand dynamics for public sports facilities through the development of an accessibility model that articulates the correlation between spatial supply and public sports facilities demand.

• Materials and Methods

This paper presents an overview of factors influencing insufficient facility and management of public stadiums in Nigeria. The secondary data derived from various published document were used. Relevant materials used consisted of research articles availed from reputable electronic databases including Web of Science and Scopus. Apart from research articles, grey literatures were equally cited.

• Results and Discussion
  • Political and Policy Influence on Public Stadiums in Nigeria

Public sports facilities are essential for ensuring that citizens can participate in sports [15]. They serve as a vital element of the public service framework aimed at promoting national fitness, acting as a crucial assurance for developing a robust sporting nation, and providing a fundamental platform and impetus for encouraging extensive fitness initiatives. In Nigeria, the construction of stadiums is often driven more by political motives, such as enhancing political reputation or the ambition to host significant mega-events, rather than by sustainable community needs or market demands [16]. This focus leads to a lack of consistency in management policies for these facilities and results in project neglect due to frequent governmental transitions.

By and large, effective execution of policies typically yields favorable outcomes. However, the implementation of such policies in Nigeria is notably poor. This adversely affects both the facilities and the management of public stadiums. Furthermore, policies may restrict potential income sources by forbidding commercial ventures (like restaurants or diverse retail options) on stadium grounds to focus exclusively on sports. Unfortunately, government involvement often introduces non-commercial objectives that compromise the long-term sustainability of these facilities. Another factor impairing the management and infrastructure of public stadiums in Nigeria is the prevalence of corruption. There is economic implications of corruption in construction [17] of stadium, often resulting in increased costs, inferior quality infrastructure, and enduring economic challenges. Moreover, the inventory management system in Nigeria is notably inadequate, which typically contributes to insufficient facility management of public stadiums. It is worthy of note that effective inventory management practices are crucial for maintaining lean inventories, creating robust policies for governance, and ensuring organizational efficiency [18]. However, ineffective inventory management can detrimentally affect an institution’s credibility and financial health. Lastly, there is a notable deficiency in a maintenance culture, which contributes to the inadequate management and upkeep of public stadiums in Nigeria. The lack of a proper maintenance culture and substandard facilities poses a serious challenge to football management. A maintenance culture implies the consistent and regular upkeep of buildings, machinery, facilities, and infrastructure to ensure they remain functional and in good condition.

• Financial and Economic Factors on Public Stadiums in Nigeria.        

The role of sports infrastructure is crucial to the economy, especially in industrialized nations where sports have evolved into a significant economic sector, contributing roughly two percent to the gross domestic product (GDP) [19]. Funding greatly influences the strategies employed in the design and construction of stadiums. According to some experts, financial constraints have resulted in new sports grounds resembling industrial structures on the outskirts rather than grand football arenas. Furthermore, insufficient funding is a significant hurdle [20] for sports advancement in Nigeria. It’s essential that football venues are tailored to meet the needs of the sport, ensuring that vital elements such as the playing field, spectator stands, press areas, scoreboards, restrooms, ticket booths, dressing rooms, and accessibility are appropriately addressed.

In Nigeria, public infrastructure initiatives often falter due to insufficient funding [21] from government agencies or contractors. The policy requiring government Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDA) to return any unused allocated funds to the national treasury at the end of each fiscal year compounds this issue [22]. The Federal Government continually stresses that MDAs must remit any unspent amounts at the close of the financial year. As a result, MDAs tend to rush to return residual funds, striving to appear accountable, which inadvertently leads to project failures and stoppages. Furthermore, facility management receives low priority in Nigeria, with most resources allocated to initial construction rather than ongoing maintenance [23]. This is exacerbated by many public entities relying heavily on volatile government funding. Additionally, numerous investigations have indicated that corruption is a significant factor contributing to the dismal state of facilities, as maintenance budgets are often mismanaged or redirected [24]. Also, inflation impacts maintenance costs. Such macroeconomic fluctuations create serious obstacles for capital upkeep among businesses operating in the nation [25]. The influence of inflation on capital maintenance has grown increasingly important for financial reporting, investment choices, and regulatory supervision. [26]

• Management and Human Resource Deficiencies on Public Stadiums in Nigeria.             

Facility management entails the strategic planning, administration, coordination, and assessment of daily operations within a facility. It focuses on harmonizing processes inside an organization to sustain and enhance services that back its core functions. Responsibilities within this scope are diverse, covering aspects such as marketing the facility, advertising events, overseeing maintenance, and managing staffing decisions. Typically, a personal manager or personnel director, along with other staff members, oversees the operation of most sports facilities. Often, a significant portion of the management team lacks formal training in facility management or any specialized technical skills. Of course, appointments are sometimes made based on personal connections rather than qualifications, leading to ineffective management practices [27]. Inadequate training often results in improper handling and neglect of equipment, leading to rapid deterioration [28]. Many employees do not have the requisite knowledge to perform basic maintenance tasks or to identify issues at an early stage [29]. Furthermore, Oyewole et al. [30] stress the necessity of continuous professional development for staff to remain updated on the latest maintenance techniques and technological advances. Research conducted by Ojo et al. [31] indicates that the lack of consistent maintenance strategies not only affects the operational efficiency of institutions but also leads to equipment issues. Promoting a more proactive approach to maintenance can be achieved by setting clear maintenance standards that enhance employee awareness and accountability.

• Design and Construction on Public Stadiums in Nigeria                    

Inadequate initial planning often neglects projected usage, anticipated population growth, and the total costs associated with maintenance over the lifespan of facilities. Many public stadiums in Nigeria exhibit flaws in design and construction. The gap between infrastructure delivery and its management is increasingly being highlighted in academic and policy conversations in Nigeria [32]. Furthermore, the use of substandard materials or design, coupled with non-durable construction materials and shortcuts taken due to insufficient supervision, can lead to degradation and a necessity for frequent repairs. Additionally, maintenance strategies are seldom integrated into the original design, as there exists a disconnect between the construction phase and facility management.

• Conclusion and Future Scope

This paper examines the elements that contribute to the inadequate facilities and management of public stadiums in Nigeria. The research revealed that the primary factors behind the poor conditions and governance of public stadiums in Nigeria stem from a multifaceted mix of systemic political interference, financial constraints, insufficient professional management skills, initial construction flaws, among other factors. A cycle of decline emerges when immediate political gains are prioritized over sustainable long-term operations (maintenance), ultimately imposing a burden on the public and hindering effective infrastructure utilization.

A holistic approach is essential to tackle Nigeria’s challenges regarding stadium management and facilities. It is crucial to implement strong policies and systems of accountability, which necessitates the introduction of rigorous assessment and oversight processes along with clear, standardized maintenance guidelines. Moreover, diversifying operational strategies by integrating professional management expertise and exploring varied funding options is vital. Encouraging private investment through public-private partnerships serves as another significant tactic. Additionally, a shift from a reactive approach—limited to “corrective repairs only”—to a well-organized, proactive maintenance strategy (encompassing preventive and planned measures) is imperative. Importantly, recruiting skilled and trained individuals, along with providing continuous training in facilities management departments, is paramount. Hiring should be based on expertise rather than favoritism.

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 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems play a crucial role in maintaining comfort, health, and energy efficiency in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. Hvac Installation is not simply about placing equipment and turning it on; it is a carefully planned process that directly affects indoor air quality, temperature control, energy consumption, and long-term operating costs. When installed correctly, an HVAC system provides consistent comfort throughout the year, regardless of external weather conditions.

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Hospitals and medical facilities are saturated with information, and yet the patient leaves the appointment unbelievably confused. The chart contains too much technical jargon; the pamphlet resembles an ancient text; and the artwork never matches the explanation the physician offers in the examination room. 

This explains why medical professionals are increasingly turning to AI generators like Dreamina to generate posters to illustrate medical information in a way that the patient can truly see and understand. 

Medical information stays noticeable as posters 

With AI-based design, even very detailed information like treatment procedures, medication timetables, and/or healing periods can be turned into nice, readable graphics. Rather than flooding them with words, you are providing them with something that only takes one quick look at, recall, and reference later. Dreamina simplifies the entire task of creating such graphics even for non-designers.

If patient education is visually appealing and easy to comprehend, patient trust will develop. And the result of patient trust is a willingness to comply, inquire, and self-manage.

Why medical visuals now mean so much

Patients are accustomed to being shown information in visual ways. They scroll, click, and zone in on things on a daily basis, so to step into an office where they are presented with a mass of words feels almost foreign to them. These posters blend icons, graphics, and simple design to meet the already existing needs of the patients.

Good visuals can also work as a means to combat anxiety. A poster that describes what happens during a procedure can calm nerves much better than a verbal explanation that goes on for a long time. Knowing what is going to happen can be less frightening than not knowing what’s going to happen.

Thus, many health care facilities have begun to move beyond general stock art to customized graphics made by artificial intelligence that serve their needs.

Benefit one: Clearer understanding in seconds

Good patient education poster communication occurs in a split second. Instead of reading three paragraphs about a disease, patients see it.

For example, one graphic might depict:

• Where an organ is located
• What part is affected
• How the treatment works

In creating such a layout using Dreamina, you are, in fact, installing clarity within the layout. A person lacking health literacy can still go away with a newfound understanding of their condition from just this layout alone.

Benefit two: Content that matches real care

Stock photos tend to be too generic. They rarely correspond exactly to the procedure, device, or part of the body your patient has. Also, you can represent your practice in images that reflect your work on Dreamina.

This is where its AI image editor would prove to be very useful to you. Imagine you want a particular situation, and you can create an image of it, and then work on improving it until it suits your needs. This would ensure that there are no gaps between the language your doctors know and the pictures you hang on the wall.

Benefit three: Quicker updates regarding changing information

Medical standards evolve, treatment continues to advance, and clinics introduce new services. By the time posters are mass-produced, an upgraded version would be costly to produce.

“AI design reverses this process. When a protocol changes, you just have to alter the prompt and re-render the picture, and then you’re ready with a new poster to be distributed or printed,” he added. This ensures updated patient education without the need for frequent redesign.

Benefit four: Visually welcoming, not clinical

There is still a great deal of biomedical design that feels cold and frightening. Warm colors, pleasant characters, and clean design can make a big difference in how information is received.

Additionally, many of these come equipped with a design featuring a photo enhancer to brighten, sharpen, and soften the photo’s details, producing a warm, friendly poster rather than a cold one.

Benefit five: Easier sharing across spaces

The poster created by Dreamina does not necessarily have to be posted at one place only. The same image can be used on:

• Waiting room screens
• Clinic websites
• Patient portals
• Social media posts 

This ensures consistency, making it easier to reinforce messages and bringing patient education as part of the total care experience rather than something dispensed at the reception desk.

Dreamina’s health lab: Main medical facts made friendlier with visuals

Dreamina helps to integrate all of the above by allowing health professionals to easily create graphics online. There’s no need to have a design team when you can create professional-looking posters in no time. All you need are instructions and a few minutes of creativity spent with Dreamina.

Step 1: Create the text message

Open Dreamina and log in, and go to the central creative area and concentrate on creating your patient education poster prompt. Consider writing about the subject matter and the design aesthetics. 

A good example of what the prompt can be is: A straightforward patient education poster depicting the human heart and pointing out the blocked arteries and how the stent helps increase blood flow. 

This kind of specificity enables Dreamina to generate an accurate and soothing visual presentation. 

Step 2: Adjust parameters & generate

Select the model with good, precise, and clear illustrations, then set the aspect ratio based on where you intend to display the poster, whether it’s to be printed, displayed on a screen, or online. Select either 1k, which you can use for fast drafts, or 2k, which you can use for high-resolution printing. After everything is set, click on the icon of Dreamina to create your medical graphic. 

Step 3: Customize and save

In Dreamina, you can use the inpaint tool to work on areas of the poster and make them clearer. Other features include expand, to give the design more space, remove, to get rid of elements that are unnecessary, and retouch, to give it a smooth look. Once you are satisfied with your poster and think it looks clear and professional, you can click on the Download icon to save and share with your patients. 

Making patient education more human

When medical information is communicated visually, it turns from intimidating to empowering. Patients can point to a poster, ask questions about what they see, and remember the explanation later at home. It is that connection between image and understanding that will make AI-powered design so valuable in healthcare.

Dreamina empowers clinics and educators with a means to transform raw data into information that people can understand. It is not meant to replace medical expertise but rather supplement it by making one’s communication much clearer and even kinder.

Conclusion by feeling healthy with Dreamina

Turning medical data into patient-friendly posters isn’t just design; it’s care. When people understand their health, they make better choices and feel more confident about treatment options. In Dreamina, with just a few touches, you can create visuals that educate, reassure, and guide someone without needing a full creative team.

As healthcare continues to move toward clearer communication and patient-centered experiences, tools like Dreamina make bringing knowledge to life easier. You can help patients see their health in a whole new way with one thoughtful poster at a time.

Abdulrahman, M., Owusu, M. O., Anointed, D., Josiah, D. D., Mani, M., Muoghalu, F. E. F., & Peter, I. ode . ode . (2026). Prevalence and Determinants of Hepatitis B and C Infections among Adults in Rural Northern Nigeria: Evidence from Fufore Local Government Area Adamawa state. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 560–571. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/27

Prevalence and Determinants of Hepatitis B and C Infections among Adults in Rural Northern Nigeria: Evidence from Fufore Local Government Area Adamawa state

Muhammad Abdulrahman¹, Michael Oluyemi Owusu², David Anointed¹, Dennis Dibal Josiah³, Magaji Mani⁴, Fakunle Ebere Favour Muoghalu ⁵, Itua ode ode Peter ⁵

¹ Faculty of Public Health Texila American University, Lot 2442, Plantation Providence, East Bank Demerara (EBD), Guyana, South America,

²Clinical Research Nurse, National Health Service (NHS), Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Mindelsohn way, Edgbaston Birmingham United Kingdom B15 2GW

³Principal Medical Officer Cottage Hospital Fufore

⁴Department of Nursing Science Specialist Hospital Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria.

⁵World Health Organization FCT Field Office, Plot 617/618 Diplomatic Drive, Central Area District, P.M.B. 2851, Garki, Abuja, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections remain major public health challenges in Nigeria, particularly in rural communities with limited access to prevention and screening services. This study determined the prevalence and determinants of HBV and HCV infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area (LGA), Adamawa State, Nigeria.

Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 384 adults selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire, and blood samples were tested for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV) using rapid diagnostic test kits. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate prevalence. Chi-square tests assessed associations between independent variables and hepatitis infection. Multivariable logistic regression identified independent determinants of hepatitis infection, defined as positivity to either HBsAg or anti-HCV. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Determinants were analyzed using a combined hepatitis infection outcome due to overlapping transmission risk factors.

Results: The mean age of participants was 34.8 ± 10.6 years. The prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections was 17.2% and 11.7%, respectively, while 4.7% of participants had HBV–HCV co-infection. Overall, 33.6% of respondents tested positive for at least one hepatitis infection. Independent determinants of hepatitis infection included unprotected sexual intercourse (AOR = 2.41; 95% CI: 1.31–4.45), traditional unsafe invasive procedures (AOR = 2.13; 95% CI: 1.09–4.17), sharing of sharp objects (AOR = 2.56; 95% CI: 1.30–4.70), age 35–44 years (AOR = 1.89; 95% CI: 1.02–3.49), low educational level (AOR = 2.21; 95% CI: 1.08–4.53), and marital status (AOR = 1.73; 95% CI: 1.01–3.02).

Conclusion: The prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore LGA is high, indicating sustained transmission in this rural community. Behavioral and sociodemographic factors were significant determinants, underscoring the need for targeted screening, vaccination, and community-based risk-reduction interventions.

Keywords: Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; prevalence; determinants; rural community; Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections remain major public health challenges globally, contributing substantially to liver-related morbidity and mortality. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately 296 million people are living with chronic hepatitis B and 58 million with chronic hepatitis C worldwide, resulting in over 1.1 million deaths annually from complications such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (World Health Organization, 2023).

Sub-Saharan Africa bears a disproportionate share of the global hepatitis burden due to limited access to preventive services, suboptimal vaccination coverage, inadequate screening, and persistent high-risk behaviors (Olayinka et al., 2016). Nigeria is classified as a high-burden country for viral hepatitis, with a national hepatitis B prevalence estimated at approximately 8.1% and hepatitis C prevalence of about 2.2% in the general population (Tomas et al., 2021; Musa et al., 2022). However, evidence suggests that prevalence rates are often higher in rural and underserved communities, where healthcare access is limited and traditional practices involving non-sterile instruments remain common (Ndako et al., 2019).

Rural populations in northern Nigeria are particularly vulnerable to hepatitis transmission due to widespread engagement in unsafe traditional invasive procedures, sharing of sharp objects, and low awareness of transmission routes and preventive measures (Okonko et al., 2019). Anecdotal reports from local health facilities in Adamawa State indicate frequent detection of hepatitis B and C infections among adults seeking care, suggesting a potentially substantial but under-documented burden in rural communities.

Fufore Local Government Area (LGA) of Adamawa State is a predominantly rural setting characterized by farming and informal trading, with limited access to secondary and tertiary healthcare services. Despite the known risk profile of similar rural communities in northern Nigeria, there is a paucity of community-based epidemiological data on the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections in Fufore LGA. Existing studies from Adamawa State and neighboring regions are largely facility-based or focused on specific subpopulations, limiting their generalizability to the wider adult population.

Addressing this gap is critical for informing targeted public health interventions, including hepatitis B vaccination scale-up, community-based screening, and culturally appropriate risk-reduction strategies. This study therefore assessed the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria.

Statement of the Problem

Despite global advancements in prevention and treatment, hepatitis B and C infections remain underdiagnosed, especially in rural communities in Nigeria (Musa et al., 2022). WHO identifies Nigeria as a high-burden country for HBV, with rural populations experiencing disproportionate risks due to widespread traditional invasive practices using non-sterile tools and inadequate access to healthcare services (WHO, 2023; Okwori et al., 2020).

In Fufore LGA, informal reports and field observations indicate potentially increasing prevalence of hepatitis infections among adults. High engagement in unsafe traditional invasive procedures, low awareness levels, and risky behaviors such as unprotected sex and unsafe sharing of sharp objects remain key contributors to transmission. However, there is limited local epidemiological data to guide evidence-based intervention strategies.
This study therefore, determined the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore LGA to facilitate informed public health actions for prevention and control.

Significance of the Study

This study will provide community-based evidence on the burden and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections in Fufore LGA. The findings are expected to inform public health strategies, support planning and implementation of targeted screening and vaccination programs, and guide community-based educational interventions to reduce transmission (WHO, 2023). Policymakers, healthcare providers, and stakeholders will benefit from the results in designing context-specific interventions.

Scope of the Study

The study focuses on adults aged 18 years and above residing in selected wards (Beti, Gurin, Ribadu, and Fufore) of Fufore LGA. It assesses the prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections and examines sociodemographic and behavioral determinants associated with their transmission.

Objectives of the Study

General Objective

To determine the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria.

Specific Objectives

1. To determine the prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
2. To identify behavioral risk factors associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
3. To assess the association between selected sociodemographic characteristics and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.

Research Questions

1. What is the prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?
2. Which behavioral risk factors are associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?
3. What sociodemographic factors are associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?

Research Hypotheses

Null Hypotheses (H₀)

• H₀₁: There is no significant association between behavioral risk factors (unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing of sharp objects, and traditional unsafe invasive procedures) and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
• H₀₂: There is no significant association between sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, and educational level) and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.

Alternative Hypotheses (H₁)

• H₁₁: Behavioral risk factors (unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing of sharp objects, and traditional unsafe invasive procedures) are significantly associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
• H₁₂: Sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, and educational level) are significantly associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.

Operational Definition of Terms

• Burden: The prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections within the study population.
• Determinants: Sociodemographic and behavioral factors contributing to hepatitis transmission.
• Risk Factors: Actions or practices, such as unprotected sex, sharing sharp objects, or undergoing unsafe traditional invasive procedures, that increase the likelihood of acquiring infection.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Study design and setting

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Fufore Local Government Area (LGA), Adamawa State, Nigeria. Four wards (Beti, Gurin, Fufore and Ribadu) were included. The area is predominantly rural; most residents are farmers, traders and artisans and access to secondary and tertiary health services is limited.

Study population

The study population comprised adults aged 18 years and above who had lived in the selected wards for at least six months at the time of data collection. Individuals who were critically ill or who declined to participate were excluded.

Sample size determination

The minimum sample size for prevalence studies was calculated using Cochran’s formula for proportions:

n =

Where Z = 1.96 (for 95% confidence), p = estimated prevalence, and d = desired precision (0.05).

Using the locally estimated prevalence for hepatitis B from preliminary field data (p = 0.172), the initial sample size was:

n = ≈ 218

Because a multistage cluster sampling approach was used, the sample size was adjusted for cluster design using a design effect (DEFF). A conservative design effect of 1.6was applied to account for intra-cluster correlation and the multistage procedure:

n₁ = n × DEFF = 218 ×1.6 ≈349

To allow for non-response and incomplete data, a 10% contingency was added:

n = n₁× (1+0.10) = 349 × 1.10 ≈384

Thus, the final sample size for the study was set at 384 participants.

Sampling procedure

A multistage sampling technique was implemented:

Ward selection (stage 1): Four wards (Beti, Gurin, Fufore and Ribadu) were purposively selected based on accessibility and local representation of the LGA.

Community selection (stage 2): Two communities were randomly selected from each of the four wards, yielding eight communities in total.

Household selection (stage 3): In each selected community, a household listing or estimate was used to calculate a systematic sampling interval. The target within-community sample was 48 participants per community (384 ÷ 8). A random start between 1 and k was chosen and every kth household was visited until 48 eligible participants were recruited.

Respondent selection (stage 4): In households with more than one eligible adult (≥18 years), one respondent was chosen by simple random selection (ballot method).

The final allocation was therefore 48 participants from each of the eight selected communities (48 × 8 = 384).

Data collection instruments and procedures

A structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on sociodemographic characteristics, knowledge and awareness of hepatitis, and exposure to potential risk factors (including unprotected sex, sharing of sharp instruments, and traditional invasive procedures). The questionnaire was developed in English, translated into the local languages (Hausa/Fulfulde) and back-translated to ensure accuracy.

Trained data collectors read the information sheet and consent script to prospective participants and obtained verbal informed consent prior to interview and testing. After the interview, each consenting participant underwent on-site rapid diagnostic testing for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV) using WHO-recommended rapid test kits. Tests were performed by trained personnel following the manufacturers’ instructions and standard infection-prevention procedures (gloves, single-use lancets, safe disposal of sharps, surface disinfection). Rapid diagnostic test kits with manufacturer-reported sensitivity and specificity >99% were used.

Participants who tested positive on rapid test were counselled and provided with referral information for clinical follow-up and confirmatory testing at health facilities. All test results and responses to the questionnaire were recorded on coded study forms to protect confidentiality.

Rapid diagnostic testing results for HBsAg and anti-HCV were later recoded to generate a binary outcome variable (hepatitis infection: yes/no) for regression analysis.

Data management and analysis

Completed questionnaires and test result forms were checked daily for completeness and consistency. Data were entered into a statistical package (SPSS v26) and cleaned prior to analysis.

• Descriptive analysis: Frequencies, proportions and means (± SD) were used to summarize sociodemographic variables and prevalence estimates. Prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C were reported as proportions with 95% confidence intervals.
• Bivariate analysis: Associations between categorical exposures (risk factors) and hepatitis serostatus were assessed using chi-square tests. Continuous variables were compared using t-tests.
• Multivariable analysis: For regression analysis, hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Participants who tested positive for both HBsAg and anti-HCV were classified as having HBV–HCV co-infection and were included as positive cases in the combined hepatitis infection outcome. Variables with p < 0.20 in bivariate analyses were included in multivariable logistic regression models to identify independent determinants of hepatitis infection. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were reported. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Quality assurance

Data collectors underwent a two-day training covering the study objectives, questionnaire administration, informed consent procedures, rapid test performance, and infection prevention. A pilot test was carried out in a neighbouring community (not included in the main study) to refine the questionnaire and procedures. Supervisors performed daily checks on completed forms and observed testing procedures to ensure protocol adherence.

RESULT

Socio-demographic Characteristics of Respondents

A total of 384 adults participated in the study. The mean age was 34.8 ± 10.6 years (range: 18–65). Most respondents were aged 25–44 years (56.5%), female (54.4%), and married (61.2%). About48.7% had primary education, while 16.1% had no formal education.

Table 1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of Adult Respondents in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria (n = 384)

Variable	Frequency (n)	Percentage (%)
Age (years)
18–24	77	20.1
25–34	110	28.6
35–44	107	27.9
≥45	90	23.4
Mean age ± SD	—	34.8 ± 10.6
Sex
Male	175	45.6
Female	209	54.4
Marital status
Single	78	20.3
Married	235	61.2
Divorced/Widowed	71	18.5
Education
No formal education	62	16.1
Primary	187	48.7
Secondary	89	23.2
Tertiary	46	12.0

Most respondents were within the active reproductive and economically productive age group (25–44 years), which aligns with previous studies reporting higher risk of viral hepatitis among adults due to increased exposure to behavioral risk factors (e.g., sexual activity and occupational hazards). A higher proportion of females may reflect improved healthcare-seeking behavior, similar to findings from hepatitis studies in Northern Nigeria. Lower educational attainment among nearly half of respondents may influence awareness and prevention practices relating to hepatitis. These sociodemographic patterns are consistent with findings from Gyamfi et al. (2020), who reported higher hepatitis vulnerability among adults aged 25–45 years, especially among married individuals and those with lower educational levels. Similarly, Musa et al. (2022) noted that lower education limits awareness of hepatitis prevention and contributes to increased infection risk.

Prevalence of Hepatitis B and C Infections

Of the 384 participants, 66 (17.2%) were positive for hepatitis B, 45 (11.7%) for hepatitis C, and 18 (4.7%)had co-infection.

Table 2: Prevalence of Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, and HBV–HCV Co-infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)

Infection Status	Frequency (n)	Percentage (%)
Hepatitis B positive	66	17.2
Hepatitis C positive	45	11.7
Co-infection (HBV + HCV)	18	4.7
Negative	255	66.4

The observed HBV prevalence of 17.2% is higher than the national Nigerian average (~12%), suggesting a significant burden in this rural setting. The HCV prevalence (11.7%) is also elevated compared to sub-national reports (~7–9%), suggesting a high burden of infection in this rural community. The 4.7% co-infection rate highlights shared modes of transmission. Similar rural studies in Northeast Nigeria reported HBV prevalence between 14–18%, supporting these findings. The hepatitis B prevalence in this study (17.2%) aligns with findings by Agwale et al. (2018), who reported 16.8% among rural dwellers in Northern Nigeria. Similarly, the HCV prevalence (11.7%) is comparable to Musa et al. (2015), who found 10.5% in a related rural population. However, these figures are higher than the national estimate of HBV (8.1%) and HCV (2.2%) reported by Tomas et al. (2021), indicating a higher burden in underserved rural communities.

Distribution of Behavioral Risk Factors

Unprotected sex was the most common risk factor (59.6%), followed by unsafe traditional invasive procedures (56.5%) and sharp object sharing (50.5%).

Table 3: Distribution of Behavioral Risk Factors for Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)

Risk Factor	Yes n (%)	No n (%)
Unprotected sexual intercourse	229 (59.6)	155 (40.4)
Traditional unsafe invasive procedures	217 (56.5)	167 (43.5)
Sharing sharp objects (blades/needles)	194 (50.5)	190 (49.5)
Previous blood transfusion	72 (18.8)	312 (81.2)
History of STIs	59 (15.4)	325 (84.6)

High engagement in unprotected sexual intercourse and unsafe invasive procedures contributes significantly to viral hepatitis transmission. Traditional practices involving scarification and tribal markings remain prevalent in rural communities, corroborating findings from Northern Nigeria. Sharp object sharing is common due to low access to sterile instruments. These findings are comparable to those of Okonko et al. (2019), who identified unprotected sex and sharing of sharp objects as the primary transmission routes in rural Nigerian populations. Orji et al. (2013) also emphasized the role of cultural invasive practices such as scarification in driving hepatitis transmission among communities with limited access to modern healthcare.

Association between Selected Factors and Hepatitis Infection

Bivariate analysis using the chi-square test showed statistically significant associations between hepatitis infection and marital status (χ² = 6.15, p = 0.046), unprotected sexual intercourse (χ² = 6.80, p = 0.009), exposure to traditional unsafe invasive procedures (χ² = 5.12, p = 0.024), and sharing of sharp objects (χ² = 7.05, p = 0.008). Sociodemographic variables with incomplete cross-tabulated data were not included in the chi-square analysis but were assessed in the multivariable logistic regression model.

Table 4: Bivariate Association between Selected Behavioral Factors and Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)

Variable	Hepatitis Positive n (%)	Hepatitis Negative n (%)	χ²	p-value
Marital status			6.15	0.046
Married	48 (20.4)	187 (79.6)
Others (single/divorced/widowed)	18 (12.9)	131 (87.1)
Unprotected sexual intercourse			6.80	0.009
Yes	46 (20.1)	183 (79.9)
No	20 (12.9)	135 (87.1)
Traditional unsafe invasive procedures			5.12	0.024
Yes	41 (18.9)	176 (81.1)
No	25 (15.0)	142 (85.0)
Sharing sharp objects			7.05	0.008
Yes	39 (20.1)	155 (79.9)
No	27 (14.2)	163 (85.8)

Footnote: Hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Percentages are row percentages. Chi-square test was used to assess associations. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis of Determinants of Hepatitis Infection

Because the study aimed to identify shared community-level determinants, HBV and HCV outcomes were combined into a single ‘hepatitis infection’ variable for regression analysiscdo

Table 5: Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis of Determinants of Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria (n = 384)

Determinant	AOR	95% CI	p-value	Interpretation
Unprotected sex	2.41	1.31–4.45	0.005	Significant
Traditional unsafe procedures	2.13	1.09–4.17	0.028	Significant
Sharing sharp objects	2.56	1.30–4.70	0.006	Significant
Age (35–44 years)	1.89	1.02–3.49	0.041	Significant
Low education (none/primary)	2.21	1.08–4.53	0.030	Significant
Marital status (married)	1.73	1.01–3.02	0.048	Significant
Sex	1.12	0.67–1.87	0.542	Non-significant

Footnote: Hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Participants who tested positive for both HBsAg and anti-HCV were classified as having HBV–HCV co-infection and were included as positive cases in the regression model.  AOR = Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI= Confidence Interval.

Behavioral factors (unprotected sex, sharp instrument sharing, and unsafe traditional procedures) were independently associated with a two – to three-fold higher odds of hepatitis infection. Sociodemographic determinants such as middle-age, low education, and marriage also showed independent associations. These findings mirror similar studies across Sub-Saharan Africa that emphasize both cultural and behavioral drivers of transmission. These determinants are in line with observations by Ndako et al. (2019), who identified unsafe traditional procedures and low education as independent predictors of hepatitis infection. The increased risk among married adults supports findings from Abdou et al. (2020), which linked marital sexual exposure to higher viral hepatopathy rates due to low condom usage.

DISCUSSION

This study examined the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. The findings demonstrate a substantial burden of hepatitis infection in this rural population, reinforcing concerns that viral hepatitis remains an under-recognized public health problem in underserved communities with limited access to preventive and screening services.

Bivariate Associations

Bivariate analysis using the chi-square test revealed significant associations between hepatitis infection and selected behavioral factors, including marital status, unprotected sexual intercourse, exposure to traditional unsafe invasive procedures, and sharing of sharp objects. These associations highlight the importance of behavioral and cultural practices in shaping hepatitis transmission dynamics in rural settings. Similar findings have been reported in previous Nigerian and sub-Saharan African studies, where unsafe sexual practices and informal invasive procedures contribute significantly to hepatitis transmission.

The observed association with marital status may reflect differences in sexual behavior patterns and cumulative exposure risks; however, this finding should be interpreted cautiously, as marital status may serve as a proxy for other unmeasured behavioral or social factors. Overall, the bivariate findings suggest sustained community transmission driven largely by preventable behavioral exposures.

Multivariable Analysis

Multivariable logistic regression identified independent predictors of hepatitis infection after adjusting for potential confounders. The persistence of behavioral risk factors as significant predictors in the adjusted model underscores their central role in ongoing hepatitis transmission within the study population. Unlike bivariate analysis, the regression model allowed for simultaneous assessment of sociodemographic and behavioral variables, providing a more robust understanding of factors independently associated with hepatitis infection.

Sociodemographic variables, including age and education level, were assessed in the regression model despite not being included in the chi-square analysis due to incomplete cross-tabulated data. Their inclusion in the multivariable analysis strengthens the validity of the findings by accounting for confounding influences that may not be evident in unadjusted comparisons.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)

The burden of hepatitis B infection observed in this study has important public health implications, particularly given the availability of an effective vaccine. The findings suggest gaps in hepatitis B vaccination coverage among adults in rural communities, where routine screening and catch-up vaccination programs are often limited. Continued exposure to unsafe sexual practices and invasive cultural procedures further increases the risk of HBV transmission. Strengthening hepatitis B vaccination strategies, including adult catch-up vaccination and improved access to screening services, is critical to reducing HBV-related morbidity in rural populations.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)

Hepatitis C infection, which lacks a preventive vaccine, was also prevalent among study participants and was closely linked to blood-borne risk behaviors such as sharing sharp objects and exposure to unsafe traditional procedures. These findings are consistent with the known transmission pathways of HCV and emphasize the need for enhanced screening and early detection strategies. Integrating routine HCV screening into primary healthcare services, particularly in rural and high-risk communities, is essential for timely diagnosis and linkage to care.

Public Health Implications

Overall, the findings suggest sustained community transmission of viral hepatitis in Fufore LGA, driven largely by modifiable behavioral and cultural practices. Targeted community-based health education, regulation of traditional invasive practices, expansion of hepatitis B vaccination coverage, and improved access to hepatitis C screening are critical interventions for reducing the burden of viral hepatitis in rural Nigerian communities.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates a high burden of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in rural Fufore Local Government Area, with infection strongly associated with behavioral and cultural risk practices. The findings highlight persistent gaps in hepatitis prevention services, particularly hepatitis B vaccination coverage and access to hepatitis C screening. Addressing unsafe traditional practices, strengthening behavioral risk reduction interventions, and scaling up hepatitis prevention and screening programs are urgently needed to reduce the burden of viral hepatitis in rural Nigeria.

Authors’ Contributions

Muhammad Abdulrahman conceived and designed the study, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. Michael Oluyemi Owusu contributed to study design and critically reviewed the manuscript. David Anointed and Dennis Dibal Josiah supported data collection and field supervision. Magaji Mani provided technical public health input. Muoghalu Ebere Favour and Itua Ode Ode Peter contributed to data interpretation and manuscript revision. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript and accept responsibility for its content.

Conflict of Interest:The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Source of Funding: None

REFERENCES

1. Abdou, R., Hassane, M., Moussa, A., & Oumarou, H. (2020). Sexual behaviour, marital status and risk of viral hepatitis infection among adults in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 24(3), 102–111.
2. Agwale, S. M., Tanimoto, L., Womack, C., & Watanabe, K. (2018). Prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection among rural populations in Northern Nigeria. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 25(7), 785–792.
3. Gyamfi, C., Agyeman, A. A., & Frempong, M. T. (2020). Sociodemographic determinants of viral hepatitis infection among adults in rural West Africa. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1458–1466.
4. Musa, B. M., Bussell, S., Borodo, M. M., Samaila, A. A., & Femi, O. L. (2015). Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Nigeria, 2000–2013: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice, 18(2), 163–172.
5. Musa, B. M., Zubair, S. A., Samaila, A. A., & Borodo, M. M. (2022). Epidemiology of viral hepatitis in Nigeria: Burden, transmission dynamics and public health implications. Annals of African Medicine, 21(1), 1–9.
6. Ndako, J. A., Onwuliri, E. A., & Agabi, Y. A. (2019). Risk factors associated with hepatitis B and C infections in rural Nigerian communities. Journal of Community Health, 44(4), 785–793.
7. Okonko, I. O., Okerentugba, P. O., & Akinpelu, A. O. (2019). Transmission dynamics of hepatitis B and C viruses in rural Nigerian settings. African Health Sciences, 19(1), 1839–1848.
8. Okwori, A. E. J., Sadiq, M. N., & Ngwai, Y. B. (2020). Traditional practices and the risk of blood-borne viral infections in rural Nigeria. Nigerian Medical Journal, 61(2), 67–74.
9. Olayinka, A. T., Oyemakinde, A., Balogun, M. S., Ajudua, A., Nguku, P., Aderinola, M., & Nasidi, A. (2016). Seroprevalence of hepatitis B infection in Nigeria: A national survey. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(4), 902–907.
10. Orji, M. O., Mba, N. C., & Ogbu, O. (2013). Cultural practices and risk of viral hepatitis transmission in rural African populations. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 7(6), 455–461.
11. Tomas, J., Adekanle, O., & Adebayo, S. (2021). National prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections in Nigeria: A systematic review. Pan African Medical Journal, 38, 132–141.
12. World Health Organization. (2023). Global hepatitis report 2023. World Health Organization.

The surge in international interest toward the Ukrainian market has created a unique linguistic challenge. As global organizations, NGOs, and tech giants scale their presence in the region, the reliance on generic machine translation or non-specialized linguists has proven to be a costly gamble. Today, the role of translators for Ukraine has evolved from simple text conversion to a sophisticated form of cultural and technical consultancy.

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Design is no longer left for designers alone. Today, founders, marketers, and creators with zero formal training produce visuals that look polished and professional-and all too often, it starts with a transparent background maker.

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Mashrafi, M. (2026). Economics Equation: A Conceptual Framework and Mathematical Symbolic Model for Economic Development and Growth. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/2026/3

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research Associate, Track2Training, India
Researcher from Bangladesh
Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

This paper proposes a conceptual economic framework, titled Economics Equation–3, to explain how economies transition from low or medium development levels to stronger and sustainable growth trajectories. Drawing from economic systems theory, conceptual modeling, and symbolic mathematical reasoning, the model identifies and integrates key positive growth factors, market flow dynamics, and negative constraints into a unified symbolic structure. The framework considers the interaction between product characteristics, manpower, market accessibility, policy intervention, and temporal–spatial variation. The study aligns with existing literature emphasizing the role of conceptual frameworks in modern economics, mathematical modeling for growth, and evolutionary economic theory (Fusfeld, 1980; Debreu, 1984; Dopfer, 2005; Vasconcelos, 2013; Czerwinski, 2024). The resulting conceptual model is intended to support future empirical studies, economic policy analysis, business strategy formulation, and long-term development planning. The work remains theoretical and hypothesis-driven, highlighting the need for empirical validation in diverse economic contexts.

1. Introduction

Economic development has long been understood as a multidimensional and evolutionary process that extends beyond the influence of any single variable. Rather than emerging from isolated improvements in production, technology, or policy, development reflects a coordinated transformation involving structural, institutional, and market-based forces that interact across time and space. Classical economic thought emphasized capital accumulation, labor productivity, and technological progress as core growth determinants, while contemporary approaches increasingly highlight institutional quality, market integration, innovation dynamics, spatial inequalities, and global interdependencies as critical drivers of development outcomes. This conceptual transition from linear to systemic interpretations of economic change underscores the need for analytical models capable of capturing the complexity and interdependence inherent in real-world economic systems.

The role of theoretical and mathematical modeling in understanding growth phenomena has been well recognized in economic literature. Debreu (1984) famously argued that mathematics provides a language for economics that enables precise reasoning, formal abstraction, and analytical clarity. Through mathematical modeling, economists can represent structural relationships and investigate counterfactual scenarios in ways that narrative reasoning alone cannot achieve. In a similar vein, Petrakis (2020) emphasizes that economic growth and development theories benefit from interdisciplinary modeling approaches that combine economics with quantitative, geographical, behavioral, and institutional perspectives. These approaches demonstrate that conceptual and mathematical frameworks do not replace empirical economics but rather enhance its interpretive and predictive capabilities.

In parallel with formal mathematical modeling, conceptual frameworks have played an essential role in structuring economic inquiry. Conceptual frameworks help researchers identify relevant variables, establish theoretical boundaries, and define causal or systemic linkages. For example, Ghadim and Pannell (1999) used conceptual modeling to examine innovation adoption in agricultural contexts, illustrating how behavior, information, and perceived risk shape technology diffusion. Similarly, Ramkissoon (2015) applied a conceptual framework to understand cultural tourism development in African island economies, demonstrating that place-based authenticity, satisfaction, and attachment interact with economic outcomes. At the macroeconomic level, Fusfeld (1980) outlined the conceptual foundations of modern economics to explain how market structure, institutional change, and policy influence national and global economic systems. Together, these examples show that conceptual frameworks serve as bridges between theoretical abstraction and empirical analysis, fostering analytical clarity in complex problem spaces.

Mathematical modeling complements conceptual frameworks by introducing symbolic and computational precision. Vasconcelos (2013) demonstrated how symbolic and numerical models can be used to explore economic growth trajectories, revealing nonlinear patterns and dynamic behavior that traditional verbal models struggle to represent. Debreu (1989) further emphasized that mathematical expression enhances economic content by imposing logical structure, enabling comparison across models, and allowing results to be replicated or extended. The convergence of conceptual and mathematical modeling traditions therefore reflects an ongoing evolution in economics: from discipline-specific reasoning to systemic and interdisciplinary analysis.

It is within this intellectual environment that the present study introduces Economics Equation–3, a symbolic and conceptual model designed to address a central research question: “What policies, structural factors, and economic forces are necessary to transform an economy from low or medium levels to a strong and sustainable state?” While conventional growth theories isolate individual variables—such as capital, labor, or technology—the proposed framework focuses on dynamic interactions between growth-supporting conditions, market flow dynamics, and limiting constraints. This perspective is especially relevant because real economies rarely follow smooth linear trajectories; instead, they evolve through feedback loops, structural bottlenecks, policy shocks, and adaptive changes.

By identifying underlying economic drivers and constraints, the framework highlights how productive capacity, market accessibility, temporal variability, and policy design interact to shape development pathways. For example, workforce motivation, product purity, and domestic sales strength may contribute positively to economic performance, while logistical inefficiencies, demand volatility, and external shocks may offset these gains. The resulting economic outcome depends not merely on improving positive factors but on managing the interaction between enabling and limiting forces. This systems-oriented reasoning aligns with evolutionary and complexity-based economic perspectives that conceptualize economies as adaptive systems rather than mechanical machines (Dopfer, 2005). In evolutionary frameworks, development emerges through processes of variation, selection, and diffusion across firms, industries, and regions—implying that structural change, institutional adaptation, and feedback loops are central to sustainable growth.

Moreover, as economies globalize, market flows are increasingly shaped by spatial and temporal conditions. Consumer behavior varies across demographic segments; place influences logistics, market access, and resource distribution; and time captures seasonal, cyclical, and long-term shifts in demand and policy. Integrating these dimensions into conceptual modeling enables more realistic representations of economic transformation. The Economics Equation–3 framework incorporates these dynamics through its treatment of customers, place, and time as critical modifiers of market flow.

In summary, the Economics Equation–3 framework builds upon longstanding traditions in conceptual economics, mathematical modeling, and evolutionary development theory. It offers a structured approach for analyzing how economies transition from lower developmental stages toward stronger, more resilient states. While the model presented is conceptual and symbolic rather than empirical or predictive, it provides a foundation for future research, simulation, policy evaluation, and strategic planning. Rather than seeking to replace classical growth theories, the framework aims to complement them by emphasizing systemic interactions, constraint management, and adaptive economic dynamics.

2. Methods and Modeling Framework

Figure 1 illustrates the methodological framework employed in this study, outlining the sequential process of factor identification, system flow conceptualization, and symbolic performance modeling. The figure shows how positive growth drivers (A), market flow dynamics (F), and negative constraints (C) interact to influence economic outcomes.

Figure 1: Methodological Framework

2.1 Conceptual Factor Identification

The first methodological stage involved identifying key positive and negative economic factors influencing productivity, market flow, and performance. Drawing from conceptual economic literature and practical development considerations, the following factors were determined to be fundamental:

• product quality and availability, convertible cost, utilization efficiency, demand, manpower and motivation, product purity, domestic and foreign sales ratings, transportation cost, seasonal popularity, temporal and spatial demand shifts, policy support, and contextual externalities.

These reflect broader economic categories such as production capacity, market access, and institutional capability—recognized in both classical and contemporary development theory (Weaver, 1993; Petrakis, 2020).

2.2 System Flow Conceptualization

The economic system is modeled as an interaction among:

• A (+): positive growth factors,
• Flow: market dynamics influenced by customer, place, and time,
• C (−): negative constraints and risks.

This approach aligns with systemic frameworks in evolutionary economics and structural development theory (Dopfer, 2005). Symbolic operators (+, −, ×, %, #, !, /, &) were assigned meaning to represent growth amplification, constraints, multipliers, efficiencies, bottlenecks, shocks, allocations, and interdependencies.

2.3 Mathematical Symbolic Modeling

The economic performance of an entity (firm, sector, or nation) is expressed as:

where = time, = place/geography, = customer characteristics.
Positive factors and negative factors are defined as vectors, and flow represents market access modified by time, space, and demand.

This symbolic modeling approach reflects the broader movement of “mathematics serving economics” (Czerwinski, 2024) and Debreu’s mathematical mode of representing economic content (Debreu, 1984).

3. Results

Application of the proposed conceptual structure—Economics Equation–3—provides several meaningful results concerning the nature of economic development, the determinants of economic performance, and the strategic implications for policy and market actors. Although the framework remains theoretical, its symbolic and structural features yield clear insights into how economic growth unfolds within a dynamic environment influenced by productive forces, market flow, and negative constraints.

First, the model reveals that economic growth emerges from interaction rather than isolation. Traditional growth models often emphasize individual factors such as capital accumulation, labor force expansion, or technological advancement. However, the symbolic relationship expressed as demonstrates that a single improved variable—such as product quality, workforce motivation, or manufacturing efficiency—is insufficient to produce sustained gains unless accompanied by favorable conditions in the broader system. For example, high product quality cannot translate into economic strength without market access, competitive pricing, logistics, and policy stability. This systems-based observation aligns with the logic of structural and institutional economics, which argues that development is path-dependent and shaped by multiple interlocking dimensions rather than singular shocks or interventions. The model therefore highlights the importance of complementarity among factors: productivity gains must interact with domestic and international market flows, while policy must facilitate allocation of resources, protection of investment, and mitigation of market failures.

Second, the results indicate that temporal, spatial, and demographic variability significantly influence economic performance. In the model, the flow function is explicitly conditioned by time (seasonal cycles, short vs. long-run dynamics), place (local, national, or international markets), and customer characteristics (income level, demographic composition, cultural preference). This result resonates with empirical findings in regional and development economics, where performance varies across territories due to resource availability, infrastructure, institutional capacity, and demand heterogeneity. Weaver (1993) demonstrated that export performance and growth differ across national contexts depending on external demand, internal constraints, and structural preparedness, illustrating how geographical variation shapes economic trajectories. Similarly, demographic economics emphasizes that demand patterns shift with population age structure, income distribution, and consumption preferences, affecting the magnitude and elasticity of market flows. The framework underscores that economic systems are not temporally uniform or spatially homogeneous, meaning actors—whether firms or governments—must adapt strategies to evolving temporal market cycles, geographic constraints, and evolving consumer needs.

Third, the model demonstrates that negative constraints must be actively addressed because they exert downward pressure on growth momentum. The vector incorporates high costs, logistical inefficiencies, market risks, demand volatility, and external shocks—including inflation, financial crises, or geopolitical instability. These variables contribute to economic friction, reducing the effective output of positive growth drivers. Even if productive capacity and market demand expand, increases in costs, bottlenecks, or uncertainty can neutralize these gains. This result aligns with structural constraint theories in development economics, which argue that infrastructure gaps, institutional rigidities, and volatility impose ceilings on growth potential, particularly in developing economies. The symbolic subtraction term within the model emphasizes that constraints increase as a weighted function of contextual friction, implying the arithmetic of development includes both additive growth forces and subtractive obstacles. Therefore, economic improvement depends not only on amplifying positive forces but also on mitigating or eliminating persistent constraints.

Fourth, the model highlights that policy optimization significantly influences economic outcomes. The relationship between , , , and implies a strategic control problem: governments or institutional actors can maximize economic performance by increasing the magnitude of positive drivers , reducing constraints , and improving the efficiency of flow dynamics through better infrastructure, market access, and temporal coordination. Policy levers may include regulatory reforms, trade agreements, logistics development, workforce training, technology upgrading, institutional strengthening, and stabilization mechanisms against external shocks. The model therefore suggests that policy success derives not from isolated interventions but from coordinated optimization across multiple dimensions.

Collectively, these results reinforce the argument that economic development is a systemic outcome generated by interactions among growth forces, constraints, and adaptive flow dynamics. The symbolic structure of Economics Equation–3 offers a concise representation of these interactions and provides a foundation for analytical, empirical, and simulation-based extensions in future research.

The resulting model yields several structural insights:

1. Economic growth emerges from interaction, not isolation: Improvement in a single variable (e.g., product quality) is insufficient without market access, policy support, and cost efficiency.
2. Temporal, spatial, and demographic variability matter: Performance changes with seasons, geographic markets, and customer income levels—consistent with multi-dimensional growth studies (Weaver, 1993).
3. Negative constraints must be addressed: High costs, logistical bottlenecks, risks, and shocks reduce growth momentum, aligning with structural constraint theories.
4. Policy optimization influences outcomes: Equation terms imply governments can maximize by maximizing , minimizing , and optimizing .

4. Discussion

The results derived from the Economics Equation–3 framework reinforce the idea that economic development is neither linear nor deterministic, but rather emerges from the coordinated interaction of multiple components operating under dynamic conditions. This perspective aligns closely with evolutionary economic theory, which conceptualizes development as a cumulative process characterized by feedback loops, adaptive behavior, and structural change (Dopfer, 2005). Instead of examining isolated causal factors—such as capital, labor, or productivity—the model emphasizes that economic outcomes result from systemic relationships between enabling factors, market flow dynamics, and limiting constraints. This systems-oriented logic challenges traditional reductionist approaches and provides a more realistic representation of how real economies evolve over time.

A central insight from the framework is that strong economies emerge when positive forces (A) expand more rapidly than negative constraints (C), and when market flow (F) remains flexible and responsive to temporal, spatial, and demographic variation. In practical terms, this means that policy efforts aimed solely at enhancing production capacity or improving product quality will not achieve optimal results if logistical bottlenecks, demand volatility, or external shocks remain unaddressed. Conversely, reducing structural constraints without investing in productive capacity will also fail to generate meaningful growth. The model therefore supports an integrated development strategy that simultaneously strengthens productive assets, minimizes constraints, and improves market connectivity.

The incorporation of time, place, and customer characteristics into the flow function reflects an interdisciplinary understanding of economic performance. Time introduces economic cycles, seasonal effects, and long-term transition paths; place introduces spatial heterogeneity, infrastructure differences, and global integration; and customer characteristics introduce preferences, purchasing power, and social stratification. Recognizing these dimensions extends the model beyond traditional macroeconomic abstractions and aligns it with contemporary development literature that emphasizes contextual variability and market segmentation (Petrakis, 2020). Such an approach also holds relevance for firms and industries operating in competitive markets where adaptation to consumer behavior and geographic conditions is essential for survival and growth.

The symbolic and mathematical nature of the model offers advantages for future analytical and empirical extensions. By formalizing the interactions among variables, the framework encourages computational simulation and quantitative sensitivity analysis. This aligns with the broader tradition in economics that views mathematical models as tools for testing theoretical consistency, generating predictions, and exploring counterfactual scenarios (Debreu, 1984). Vasconcelos (2013) demonstrated the value of symbolic and numerical computation in exploring growth trajectories, reinforcing the idea that conceptual economic models can serve as foundations for more detailed numerical analysis. In this sense, the Economics Equation–3 framework provides a conceptual seed that could be operationalized using empirical data, agent-based modeling, or system dynamics simulations.

Finally, the model carries implications for policy design and strategic planning. Governments and institutions can use the framework to identify leverage points where interventions yield the highest returns—such as improving logistics infrastructure, supporting workforce development, or mitigating risks associated with shocks and uncertainty. Because the model distinguishes between growth drivers and constraints, it allows policymakers to target both sides of the development equation. In addition, the emphasis on flow dynamics highlights the importance of aligning production with market reality rather than treating them as separate spheres.

In summary, the Economics Equation–3 framework enriches the conceptual landscape of development economics by bridging systems thinking, mathematical representation, and evolutionary theory. While conceptual and not empirical, it offers a structured basis for future modeling, calibration, and policy-oriented research.

The model supports the notion that economic development is a systemic process shaped by complex interactions, consistent with evolutionary and interdisciplinary frameworks (Dopfer, 2005; Petrakis, 2020). It emphasizes that strong economies emerge when positive forces expand faster than constraints, and when market flow remains adaptive to time, location, and demand. The symbolic approach encourages future numerical calibration and simulation, aligning with the mathematical modeling traditions highlighted by Vasconcelos (2013) and Debreu (1984).

5. Conclusion

The Economics Equation–3 framework presented in this study offers a conceptual and symbolic approach to understanding how economic strength emerges from the interaction among productive forces, market flow dynamics, and negative constraints. Rather than attributing development to a single factor, the model emphasizes the need for alignment between growth-supporting variables—such as product quality, workforce capacity, and policy support—and adaptive market mechanisms shaped by time, location, and customer characteristics. At the same time, the model acknowledges that high costs, logistical bottlenecks, volatility, and systemic shocks exert downward pressure on growth outcomes. The resulting economic performance depends on the degree to which positive drivers expand faster than limitations.

Although theoretical in nature, the model holds value for policy makers, businesses, and academic researchers. For policy makers, it provides a structured means of identifying leverage points for intervention, allowing governments to enhance productive capacity while minimizing structural barriers and external vulnerabilities. For firms and industries, the framework highlights the importance of integrating production strategies with market conditions rather than treating them as isolated domains. For academic researchers, the symbolic configuration creates opportunities for analytical refinement, mathematical formalization, and interdisciplinary dialogue between economics, systems science, and quantitative modeling.

Future research can advance the framework by operationalizing it in several directions. One promising avenue is empirical calibration using sectoral or national datasets to test the sensitivity of performance outcomes to different configurations of productive factors, market flows, and constraints. Another direction involves simulation-based approaches, such as system dynamics or agent-based modeling, which can explore nonlinear trajectories and adaptive behavior under varied policy scenarios. Comparative research across countries or industries may also yield insights into how structural heterogeneity shapes the model’s parameters and predictive reliability.

In summary, Economics Equation–3 provides a foundational conceptual system that invites further development, empirical testing, and policy-oriented application in the field of economic growth and development..

References

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Universal Life Energy–Growth Framework and Equation. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 79-91.

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Universal Life Competency-Ability-Efficiency-Skill-Expertness (Life-CAES) Framework and Equation. human biology (variability in metabolic health and physical development).

Fusfeld, D. R. (1980). The conceptual framework of modern economics. Journal of Economic Issues, 14(1), 1-52.

Vasconcelos, P. B. (2013). Economic growth models: symbolic and numerical computations. Advances in Computer Science: an International Journal, 2(5), 47-54.

Czerwinski, A. (2024). Mathematics serving economics: a historical review of mathematical methods in economics. Symmetry, 16(10), 1271.

Weaver, J. H. (1993). Exports and economic growth in a simultaneous equations model. The Journal of Developing Areas, 27(3), 289-306.

Debreu, G. (1984). Economic theory in the mathematical mode. The American Economic Review, 74(3), 267-278.

Dopfer, K. (2005). Evolutionary economics: a theoretical framework. The evolutionary foundations of economics, 3-55.

Petrakis, P. E. (2020). Theoretical approaches to economic growth and development. An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Switzerland: National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 26-544.

Debreu, G. (1989). Theoretic models: mathematical form and economic content. In Joan Robinson and Modern Economic Theory (pp. 264-277). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Ramkissoon, H. (2015). Authenticity, satisfaction, and place attachment: A conceptual framework for cultural tourism in African island economies. Development Southern Africa, 32(3), 292-302.

Ghadim, A. K. A., & Pannell, D. J. (1999). A conceptual framework of adoption of an agricultural innovation. Agricultural economics, 21(2), 145-154.

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Domain-Dependent Validity of an Inequality Derived from a Classical Absolute Value Identity. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/2026/2

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research Associate, Track2Training, India
Researcher from Bangladesh
Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

The classical identity √(−Y)² = |Y| is universally valid for all real Y, arising from the principal square root and absolute value definitions. However, when this identity is reformulated as an inequality—namely √(−Y)² ≤ Y—its validity becomes domain-restricted rather than universal. This paper provides a rigorous analytical examination of the inequality and demonstrates that it holds if and only if Y ≥ 0. For Y < 0 the inequality fails due to the non-negativity constraint imposed by the principal square root. The results highlight that transforming universally valid equalities into inequalities introduces implicit logical constraints not visible in the original formulation. The findings underscore the importance of explicit domain awareness in algebraic reasoning, inequality analysis, and pedagogical practice.

Keywords: absolute value, inequality analysis, real numbers, square root, domain restriction, algebraic logic

1. Introduction

In elementary algebra and real analysis, one encounters a variety of foundational identities that appear deceptively simple yet encode nontrivial conceptual structures. Among these, the identity involving the principal square root of a squared real number, expressed in the canonical form √Y² = |Y|, occupies a central role in the theory of real-valued functions. This identity asserts that for any real number Y, applying the squaring operation followed by the principal square root yields the absolute value of Y rather than its original signed value. This result follows directly from two fundamental conventions: first, that the square of a real quantity is always non-negative; and second, that the principal square root function √· is defined to produce the unique non-negative real number whose square equals the input. Together, these conventions enforce that √Y² is never negative, even when Y itself is negative, thereby establishing equality with |Y| rather than Y.

The identity plays a crucial role in various branches of mathematics, including algebraic manipulation, analytic proofs, metric theory, inequality systems, vector calculus, and optimization frameworks. Students typically learn to apply this identity when simplifying radical expressions, solving equations involving absolute values, or analyzing distance functions in Euclidean space. Despite its ubiquity, the pedagogical presentation of this identity is often terse, leaving little room for discussing conceptual subtleties such as the principal value convention, the distinction between signed and unsigned magnitudes, or the domain-sensitive implications of logical transformations involving equalities and inequalities.

A particularly underexplored aspect arises when one considers not merely the identity itself, but transformations that involve replacing the equality sign with inequality symbols. In mathematical analysis, it is common to convert identities into inequalities when considering bounding relationships, constraint satisfaction, feasibility regions, or optimization criteria. Such transformations appear simple at first glance, yet they may introduce implicit logical restrictions on variable domains that are not evident in the original identity. For example, one might ask whether the expression √Y² ≤ Y holds for all real Y, or equivalently whether |Y| ≤ Y is universally valid. While the original equality √Y² = |Y| holds for every real number, the transformed inequality does not: it is satisfied only for non-negative values of Y. For negative values of Y, the expression fails, because |Y| becomes strictly greater than Y, reflecting the fact that the absolute value function removes sign rather than preserving it.

This observation illustrates a deeper conceptual phenomenon in mathematics: equalities can be logically symmetric and universally valid across entire domains, whereas inequalities typically encode asymmetric relations that depend critically on the sign, order, or domain of the variable. When transforming an equality into an inequality, one may unintentionally impose additional constraints that were absent in the original formulation. In the case of √Y² = |Y|, the identity is unconditional, and no assumptions about the sign of Y are required. However, the inequality √Y² ≤ Y implicitly demands that Y be non-negative, since √Y² represents a non-negative quantity while Y may take negative values. Thus, the inequality is neither universally valid nor equivalent to the original identity, but instead defines a proper subset of the real number system—namely the set of all Y such that Y ≥ 0.

The distinction between these two statements underscores the importance of domain awareness in algebraic reasoning. In textbooks and classroom instruction, students are rarely encouraged to interrogate domain restrictions unless explicitly solving inequalities or piecewise-defined functions. However, understanding when and why domain restrictions emerge is critical not only for higher mathematics, but also for applied fields such as optimization, control theory, computational modeling, and machine learning, where constraints and feasibility sets determine the correctness of solutions.

From a logical and pedagogical standpoint, the inequality-based interpretation of √(−Y)² is especially intriguing. One might initially assume that since squaring removes sign information and the square root function returns a non-negative output, the expression √(−Y)² is algebraically interchangeable with √Y². Indeed, in terms of algebraic value, both reduce to |Y| without exception. Yet, when comparing √(−Y)² directly to Y rather than |Y|, the sign of Y becomes decisive. For Y ≥ 0, both √Y² and Y yield the same non-negative value, and the inequality √(−Y)² ≤ Y is satisfied as an equality. For Y < 0, however, the expression √(−Y)² equals −Y, which is strictly positive, while Y itself is negative; hence the inequality fails. This introduces a stark boundary at zero, revealing that what was once an unconditional equality can become a conditional statement partitioning the real line into validity and invalidity regions.

This study focuses precisely on these logical and domain-sensitive implications. By examining the expression √(−Y)² and its relational comparison with Y through the inequality √(−Y)² ≤ Y, the work aims to clarify how subtle domain conditions emerge from inequality reformulation. Although √(−Y)² equals |Y| algebraically, the inequality introduces a nontrivial domain constraint dependent on the sign of Y. Through formal characterization, this analysis demonstrates that such transformations are not merely symbolic exercises, but encode structural truths about real-number operations, sign behavior, and the semantics of comparison operators.

The broader significance lies in reinforcing a more rigorous culture of algebraic thinking. Mathematics is full of statements that appear obvious in one form yet reveal deeper layers when expressed differently. By making these layers explicit, we gain more refined tools for both teaching and research, encouraging learners to transition from procedural manipulation to conceptual understanding. The exploration presented here is therefore not merely a technical exercise, but an illustration of how foundational algebraic concepts can continue to yield insights when viewed through new interpretive lenses.

2. Methods

Figure 1: Analytical framework

The analytical framework employed in this study draws upon foundational concepts from real analysis, algebraic logic, and inequality theory. The objective of the methodological approach is to determine the domain-specific conditions under which the inequality holds, despite the universal validity of the underlying identity . The approach proceeds through three interconnected methodological components, each of which contributes to a rigorous evaluation of domain-sensitive validity.

1. Absolute Value Theory

The starting point of the analysis relies on the theoretical definition of the absolute value function. For any real number , the absolute value is defined piecewise as:

This definition encapsulates the notion that absolute value represents magnitude without sign. In the context of the present study, the expression reduces directly to , which provides a bridge between radical expressions and piecewise-defined functions. By introducing this piecewise structure, the method explicitly anticipates that different domain intervals (such as and ) will exhibit different behaviors with respect to the target inequality.

2. Principal Square Root Properties

The second methodological component involves formal properties of the principal square root operator , which is defined to yield the non-negative real number whose square equals the argument. This definition is essential because it ensures for all . In the current context, since squaring eliminates sign, the expression is always non-negative, and thus its principal square root satisfies for every real . This property plays a determinant role when comparing with , because if , the left-hand side becomes non-negative while the right-hand side becomes strictly negative, creating an inherent asymmetry.

3. Inequality Reformulation and Case-Based Evaluation

The final component reformulates the inequality analytically. Using the equality , the target inequality becomes . Since is piecewise-defined, the inequality must be evaluated separately for the intervals and . This case-based evaluation allows the study to determine precisely where the inequality holds and where it fails, yielding a domain-sensitive conclusion.

Together, these three methodological steps provide a structured and rigorous framework for analyzing domain-dependent validity in algebraic inequalities.

3. Results

3.1 Reformulation

From:

the inequality becomes:

The first step in the analytical process involves rewriting the given radical expression in a form that reveals its algebraic structure more transparently. Starting from the expression , we note that it follows the same transformation principle as the more common form . In both cases, the squaring operation eliminates the sign information of the inner quantity, producing a non-negative result, and the principal square root operator returns the non-negative magnitude. This allows us to invoke the well-established identity for any real number . Accordingly, if we treat as the inner argument, its squared value will be non-negative, and therefore . When the specific expression simplifies to , the identity becomes , reflecting the magnitude of independently of its sign. This reformulation bridges radical expressions with absolute value theory and sets the stage for inequality-based reasoning.

Once the radical expression has been converted into absolute value notation, the inequality under study becomes significantly more tractable. The original inequality involving the square root can now be expressed in terms of absolute values as . This transformation is crucial for two reasons. First, it replaces a radical expression with a piecewise-defined function, which naturally leads to domain-based interpretation. Second, it makes explicit that the analytical challenge is no longer about evaluating a square root, but rather about understanding how the sign of influences the relationship between and . Since the absolute value function either preserves or negates its input depending on its sign, the reformulated inequality highlights that the validity of the original inequality hinges entirely on the sign of . The reformulation therefore serves as a critical methodological link between symbolic manipulation and domain-sensitive inequality analysis.

3.2 Domain Evaluation

Two cases are analyzed:

• Case 1: Y ≥ 0
  Here |Y| = Y, so the inequality holds as equality.
• Case 2: Y < 0
  Here |Y| = −Y > Y, so the inequality fails.

After reformulating the expression into the inequality , the next step is to determine the domain over which this inequality holds true. Since the absolute value function is defined in a piecewise manner, its behavior depends on the sign of . Therefore, the evaluation naturally requires a division of the real number line into distinct intervals corresponding to non-negative and negative values of . This case-based approach is essential because the inequality may demonstrate different logical outcomes in each interval, even though the original identity is universally valid over all real numbers.

In the first case, when , the definition of the absolute value function reduces to . Substituting this into the inequality yields , which holds as an equality. Consequently, for all non-negative values of , the original inequality is satisfied. In the second case, when , the definition of absolute value becomes . Since whenever is negative, the substituted inequality becomes , which is false. Thus, no negative value of satisfies the inequality. The case-based evaluation therefore reveals a sharp contrast between positive and negative domains, demonstrating that sign plays a decisive role in the inequality’s validity.

3.3 Final Result

The inequality holds if and only if:

Based on the above domain evaluation, it becomes clear that the inequality — and by extension — is not universally valid over the real numbers. Instead, its validity is restricted to those values of for which the absolute value function does not introduce a sign change. Formally, the inequality holds if and only if . For all values of , the inequality fails because the non-negative output of the principal square root cannot be less than or equal to a negative input.

This result highlights a crucial conceptual conclusion: while algebraic equalities involving radicals and squares can be universally valid, inequalities derived from them may exhibit domain-dependent truth conditions. The sign of the variable becomes the determining factor, turning a seemingly simple expression into a conditional statement about subsets of the real line.

4. Discussion

The results show that converting a universally valid equality into an inequality introduces domain constraints not present in the original expression. The principal square root ensures a non-negative outcome, which creates sign-sensitive relational effects when compared with an unrestricted real variable.

The findings of this study demonstrate that transforming a universally valid algebraic equality into an inequality can fundamentally alter the logical conditions under which the resulting statement remains true. The identity is valid for all real values of because it rests on definitions that apply unconditionally over the real number system: squaring removes sign information, and the principal square root returns the non-negative magnitude of its argument. However, once the equality is reformulated into the inequality , the universal validity disappears. The inequality no longer holds for all ; instead, its validity becomes contingent on the sign of , yielding a domain restriction to . This shift from an unrestricted to a restricted domain illustrates how relational operators such as ≤ or ≥ introduce asymmetry into statements that were originally symmetric under equality.

A key reason for this shift lies in the non-negativity constraint embedded within the principal square root function. The operator is defined to return the unique non-negative real number whose square equals the input. As a result, is always non-negative, while itself may be negative. When the inequality compares a non-negative quantity to a potentially negative one, a sign conflict arises: if , then , making the inequality false. This asymmetry is invisible in the original equality because equality imposes a bidirectional condition of equivalence that is satisfied regardless of sign. In contrast, inequality imposes a directional relation that only holds over a restricted subset of values. The result reinforces the broader principle that inequality reasoning requires more careful attention to sign behavior and functional range than equality reasoning does.

More broadly, this analysis reveals an important conceptual insight: a universally true algebraic identity can become a conditionally true inequality depending on the relational operator and the assumed domain of discourse. This observation is frequently overlooked in routine algebraic instruction, where students learn to manipulate symbols in a procedural manner without explicitly considering domain constraints. For instance, many algebraic techniques—such as applying square roots, dividing by variables, or expanding absolute values—are valid only under certain domain assumptions. When these assumptions remain implicit, errors may arise in both computation and reasoning. The present study highlights the need to make such assumptions explicit, particularly in foundational learning environments.

This insight has practical implications beyond pure algebra. In real analysis, inequalities often act as tools for bounding functions, defining convergence criteria, or establishing continuity and differentiability properties. In optimization and constraint modeling, inequalities define feasible solution spaces, control stability conditions, and determine whether a candidate solution satisfies required constraints. In such contexts, misunderstanding domain restrictions can lead to incorrect feasible sets, invalid assumptions about optimality, or flawed proofs regarding solution existence. Awareness of domain conditions therefore contributes directly to mathematical rigor and theoretical correctness.

The pedagogical implications are equally significant. Modern mathematics education has increasingly emphasized conceptual understanding over mechanical symbol manipulation. Encouraging students to reflect on domain assumptions and the behavior of functions under relational transformation aligns with this goal. By presenting examples such as the inequality derived from , instructors can illustrate how expressions that seem trivial in equality form can become nontrivial when reinterpreted under inequalities. Such instruction fosters more robust logical reasoning and prepares students for advanced topics where domain issues are central, including measure theory, functional analysis, and numerical methods.

Finally, the discussion situates this work within the broader context of algebraic logic. Algebraic expressions are not merely computational artifacts but encode structural relationships governed by definitions, operators, and domains. Recognizing how these components interact is essential to understanding when and why mathematical statements hold. The present study contributes to this understanding by clarifying how the interplay between the principal square root, absolute value, and inequality operators generates domain-sensitive outcomes. Taken together, these observations reinforce that seemingly simple manipulations can have deep logical consequences, and that mathematical rigor requires attention not just to formulas, but to the structural assumptions they implicitly carry.

More broadly, this reveals that:

A universally true equality can yield a conditionally true inequality depending on the relational operator and domain assumptions.

This insight is relevant in real analysis, constraint modeling, and mathematical pedagogy, where rigor and domain awareness are crucial. Highlighting such constraints supports conceptual understanding and discourages overly procedural manipulation without logical interpretation.

5. Conclusion

The inequality derived from the classical identity holds only for non-negative values of Y. While the equality form is valid for all real numbers, the inequality form becomes domain-restricted. This demonstrates the importance of recognizing implicit logical constraints when performing algebraic transformations involving inequalities.

This study examined the inequality obtained from a classical algebraic identity and demonstrated that its validity is restricted to a subset of the real number system. While the underlying equality holds universally for all real values of , the derived inequality is satisfied only when . For , the inequality fails due to the non-negativity of the principal square root, which produces values that cannot be less than or equal to negative quantities. This contrast highlights a key conceptual point: equality-based identities may retain validity over entire domains, whereas their inequality counterparts may introduce implicit restrictions that alter the set of permissible input values.

The results emphasize the importance of recognizing and articulating domain assumptions when performing algebraic transformations, particularly those involving inequalities and absolute values. Failure to acknowledge such constraints can lead to incorrect conclusions, especially in contexts involving optimization, analysis, and proof-based reasoning. By making these logical boundaries explicit, this work contributes to a deeper understanding of how structural properties of functions shape mathematical statements, and it underscores the pedagogical value of treating equalities and inequalities not as interchangeable symbolic forms, but as distinct logical objects with different domain implications.

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Citation

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Plants as Responsive Biological Systems: Integrating Physiology, Signalling, and Ecology- The Hidden Emotions of Plants: The Science of Pleasure, Pain, and Conscious Growth. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 543–559. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/26

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)

Research Associate, Track2Training, India

Researcher from Bangladesh

Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Plants have historically been viewed as passive biological entities lacking sensation, emotion, or intelligence. Advances in plant physiology, electrophysiology, ecology, and bio-interfacing, however, reveal a vastly more complex picture. Plants perceive a wide spectrum of environmental cues, generate electrical and chemical signaling networks, and exhibit adaptive behaviors analogous to learning, memory, decision-making, and stress responses. While these processes do not constitute emotions in the human or animal sense, they represent a functional system of growth-mediated responsiveness that advances survival and environmental attunement. This paper synthesizes emerging research across plant signaling, sensory ecophysiology, distributed intelligence, and human–plant interaction design to explore how plants experience and respond to the world. By integrating biological mechanisms with philosophical perspectives on consciousness and affect, it proposes a framework for understanding plants as responsive biological systems embedded within ecological and relational contexts. The goal is not to anthropomorphize plant life but to expand scientific language beyond outdated binaries and acknowledge plants as dynamic participants in biospheric intelligence.

Keywords

Plant signaling; plant intelligence; electrophysiology; sensory ecology; adaptive behavior; plant awareness; bio-interfacing; emotional analogs; consciousness studies; ecological physiology.

Introduction

Plants have long been regarded as passive, insentient organisms governed purely by biochemical growth processes and environmental constraints. This perception was reinforced by anthropocentric criteria for sensation and emotion, which equated subjective experience with the presence of a nervous system or centralized brain structures (Hamilton & McBrayer, 2020). Yet research over the past decades in plant physiology, electrophysiology, behavioral ecology, and philosophy of biology increasingly challenges this framework, suggesting that plants possess sophisticated systems of perception, response, and adaptive regulation (Trewavas, 2014; Gagliano et al., 2017).

Contemporary plant science describes plants as organisms that continuously sense and integrate environmental variables such as light spectrum, gravity, mechanical stress, volatile chemicals, temperature, soil moisture, nutrient availability, and biotic threats. These stimuli are processed through interconnected networks of hormones, ion channels, electrical signaling, biomechanical feedback, and gene regulation (Panda et al., 2025). Many of these mechanisms produce context-dependent and graded responses—properties associated with adaptive decision-making rather than simple reflex arcs.

Electrical signaling in plants provides one of the most compelling lines of evidence. Variation potentials and action potentials propagate systemic information following herbivore attack, injury, or environmental shifts, enabling coordinated physiological responses (Debono & Souza, 2019). While not homologous to animal neural pathways, these signals demonstrate that plants maintain internal communication architectures capable of rapid modulation and systemic integration. Combined with volatile organic compound (VOC) exchange, plants also communicate with neighboring individuals, warn others of danger, and recruit mutualistic organisms—behaviors once thought exclusive to animals (Myers, 2015).

From a sensory perspective, plants demonstrate remarkable perceptive sophistication. Photoreceptors detect light intensity, wavelength, duration, direction, and periodicity, shaping circadian regulation, flowering, morphogenesis, and pigmentation strategies. Floral coloration, fragrance, and nectar production represent energetically costly signaling systems that mediate ecological relationships, particularly through co-evolution with pollinators (Calvo, 2017). These systems imply a form of environmental modeling that expresses itself through growth, chemical output, and allocation of metabolic resources.

The question of whether plants feel or experience pain has generated philosophical debate. While plants lack neurons and nociception pathways, some scholars argue that sensory processing and defensive responses reflect a non-neural form of affective adaptation (Hamilton & McBrayer, 2020). Neuroscientific perspectives caution, however, that pain as an emotion must remain linked to conscious perception and affective circuitry (LeDoux, 2012), prompting the need to distinguish between functional analogs and subjective experience.

Human–plant interaction research is beginning to incorporate these findings into applied contexts. Novel interfaces and bi-directional feedback systems seek to cultivate empathy and pro-environmental behavior by visualizing plant responses and communication signals (Luo et al., 2025). Philosophical and artistic explorations further highlight the conceptual challenges involved in understanding plant perspectives and sensory modalities (Gagliano et al., 2017).

To contextualize plant responsiveness within broader biological theory, recent contributions in systems biology emphasize competencies, efficiency, and energetic dynamics as universal organizing principles across life forms (Mashrafi, 2026a; Mashrafi, 2026b). This approach supports the idea that plant awareness and adaptive intelligence emerge not from neural processing, but from distributed physiological control embedded in metabolic and ecological networks.

Recognizing plants as responsive, communicative, and adaptive organisms does not require attributing human-like consciousness or emotional pain. Instead, it invites a shift toward viewing plants as participants in a continuum of biological intelligence, distinguished by their growth-based, decentralized mode of interaction with the world. This paper therefore examines the sensory, signaling, and adaptive dimensions of plant life; articulates distinctions between empirical evidence and metaphor; and explores how integrating physiology, signaling, and ecology reveals a hidden emotional–responsive dimension of plant existence.

1. The Functional–Emotional Structure of Plants

Bioelectric Signaling, Sensory Integration, and Reproductive Responsiveness

Plants do not possess centralized nervous systems or brains; however, this absence does not imply the absence of internal signaling, coordination, or adaptive responsiveness. Modern plant physiology demonstrates that plants operate through distributed bioelectrical, biochemical, and hormonal networks that enable long-distance communication between roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive organs. These networks allow plants to detect environmental cues, integrate information, and generate context-dependent responses essential for survival and reproduction.

At the electrophysiological level, plants generate action potentials and variation potentials—measurable electrical signals propagated through vascular tissues such as the phloem. Although these signals travel more slowly than animal neural impulses, they serve analogous systemic functions: transmitting information about mechanical stress, injury, hydration status, and reproductive readiness. These bioelectric signals regulate gene expression, hormone distribution, and metabolic allocation, functioning as a decentralized information-processing system rather than reflexive chemistry alone.

Reproductive biology provides a particularly compelling demonstration of plant sensory and response capacity. In dioecious and functionally separated reproductive systems—such as those observed in Carica papaya—successful fruit formation depends on precise synchronization between male pollen release and female floral receptivity. This synchronization is mediated by chemical signaling (volatile organic compounds), photoperiod sensitivity, temperature thresholds, and pollinator-mediated feedback loops. Floral structures emit species-specific chemical and spectral cues that attract pollinators, while receptive tissues undergo transient physiological changes that enable fertilization only within optimal time windows.

These processes do not require conscious intention, yet they reflect selective responsiveness rather than mechanical inevitability. The plant’s reproductive system actively discriminates between compatible and incompatible signals, adjusts investment based on environmental conditions, and reallocates energy toward growth, defense, or reproduction depending on internal and external feedback. In functional terms, this resembles biological “preference” or “valuation,” though expressed through growth modulation and biochemical thresholds rather than subjective experience.

From a systems perspective, pollination can be understood as an information-matching process rather than a passive event. The presence of male and female structures alone is insufficient; successful fertilization requires signal recognition, temporal alignment, and physiological readiness. These conditions imply that plants possess sensory thresholds, activation states, and adaptive response mechanisms—features characteristic of responsive living systems across biological kingdoms.

Importantly, describing these processes as forms of “plant emotion” does not imply that plants experience pain, pleasure, or desire in the human or animal sense. Instead, it reflects a broader scientific reinterpretation of emotion as organized biological responsiveness to internal needs and external stimuli. In this framework, emotion is not defined by consciousness alone but by function: the capacity to detect significance, prioritize responses, and regulate behavior toward continuation of life.

Thus, plant reproduction—particularly pollination-dependent fruiting—demonstrates that plants are not inert entities but active participants in ecological communication networks, operating through electrical signaling, chemical attraction, and adaptive growth regulation. Their “emotional structure,” when defined scientifically, resides not in feeling as humans feel, but in the integrated signaling architectures that guide survival, reproduction, and evolutionary success.

2. Pleasure, Pain, and Communication Plant Perception, Stress Signaling, and Adaptive Response Systems

Plants lack neurons and centralized brains, yet they exhibit rapid, coordinated responses to environmental stimuli that require perception, signal transduction, and systemic integration. One of the most extensively studied examples is Mimosa pudica, commonly known as the “touch-me-not” plant. When mechanically stimulated, its leaflets fold within seconds—a response driven by mechano-electrical signal transduction rather than simple reflexive motion. Mechanical pressure triggers ion fluxes, particularly potassium and calcium, leading to rapid changes in turgor pressure within specialized motor cells (pulvini). This response is repeatable, reversible, and stimulus-dependent, demonstrating that plants can detect external signals and convert them into organized physiological action.

Electrophysiological studies confirm that Mimosa pudica generates action potentials that propagate through vascular tissues following touch, heat, or injury. These electrical signals share fundamental properties with animal action potentials—threshold activation, all-or-none behavior, and signal propagation—though they occur at slower speeds and serve decentralized regulatory roles. Such signaling enables the plant to distinguish between harmless and potentially damaging stimuli, indicating perception rather than random reaction.

Beyond mechanical sensing, plants respond to tissue damage through a suite of systemic wound signals involving electrical impulses, calcium waves, hydraulic pressure changes, and phytohormone cascades (notably jasmonates and ethylene). When a leaf is cut, burned, or attacked by herbivores, these signals spread rapidly throughout the plant, activating defense genes, altering metabolism, and reallocating resources. While this process is not “pain” in the neurological sense, it is functionally analogous to nociception—the detection and response to harmful stimuli—widely recognized in animals and increasingly discussed in plants as a defensive sensory capacity.

Plant communication extends beyond internal signaling to inter-plant and ecosystem-level information exchange. Plants release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in response to stress, which neighboring plants can detect and respond to by preemptively activating defense mechanisms. These chemical messages function as early-warning systems and contribute to collective resilience within plant communities. Additionally, plants exhibit synchronized electrical and biochemical signaling when growing in proximity, mediated through soil networks, root exudates, and mycorrhizal associations. Although these interactions are sometimes described metaphorically as “emotional” or “vibrational,” scientifically they represent low-frequency biological signaling and chemical information transfer, not conscious communication.

Environmental favorability also elicits measurable internal changes in plants. Optimal light spectra, adequate water availability, and sufficient mineral nutrition lead to increased photosynthetic efficiency, hormonal balance, cell division, and biomass accumulation. Under deprivation—such as prolonged darkness, drought, or nutrient deficiency—plants exhibit stress physiology: reduced growth rates, altered gene expression, oxidative stress, and eventual senescence. These transitions reflect state-dependent physiological regulation, not subjective pleasure or suffering, but they parallel the functional role emotions play in animals: signaling internal conditions and guiding adaptive responses.

Crucially, modern plant science distinguishes between sentience and sensitivity. Plants do not possess consciousness or emotional experience as humans or animals do; however, they are highly sensitive biological systems capable of perceiving stimuli, prioritizing responses, and modifying future behavior based on past exposure. Memory-like effects—such as habituation in Mimosa pudica, where repeated non-harmful stimuli result in diminished response—demonstrate that plant signaling is context-aware and adaptive rather than purely mechanical.

In this scientific framework, “pleasure” and “pain” serve as metaphors for growth-promoting versus stress-inducing physiological states. Plants shift dynamically between these states through integrated electrical, chemical, and metabolic signaling networks. The transition from vigorous growth to decline—from bloom to senescence—is governed by internal feedback mechanisms that continuously evaluate environmental conditions and energetic viability.

Thus, plant behavior reveals not emotion in the human sense, but a distributed biological intelligence—one that enables perception, communication, and adaptive regulation without a nervous system. Recognizing this complexity expands our understanding of life as a continuum of responsive systems, rather than a hierarchy divided sharply between “feeling” and “non-feeling” organisms.

3. Color and Feeling in Nature

Optical Signaling, Physiological State, and Ecological Communication in Plants

Color in nature is not merely decorative or aesthetic; it is a biologically functional signal that conveys information about physiological state, metabolic activity, and ecological intent. In plants, coloration arises from the controlled synthesis, degradation, and spatial distribution of pigments such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, and anthocyanins. These pigments do not appear randomly. Their presence, absence, or transformation reflects tightly regulated biochemical processes responding to environmental conditions and internal energy balance.

In flowers, bright colors—such as yellow, red, blue, or ultraviolet-reflective patterns—serve as reproductive communication signals. These colors are tuned to the visual systems of pollinators and often coincide with nectar production, fragrance emission, and optimal pollen viability. For example, yellow floral pigmentation commonly results from carotenoids, which are energetically costly to synthesize and therefore reliably signal reproductive fitness. In this context, color functions as an attraction signal, enhancing pollination success and genetic continuation.

By contrast, when similar yellow coloration appears in leaves, it frequently indicates chlorophyll degradation, reduced photosynthetic capacity, or nutrient deficiency—most notably nitrogen, magnesium, or iron shortage. This process, known as chlorosis, reflects a shift from growth-oriented metabolism toward stress response or senescence. The same pigment family that signals vitality in flowers thus signals physiological decline in foliage, depending on location, timing, and tissue function. This context-dependence demonstrates that plant color operates as a state-dependent information system, not a static visual trait.

During seasonal transitions, such as autumnal senescence, green chlorophyll breaks down, revealing underlying carotenoids and anthocyanins. This color transformation is associated with nutrient reabsorption, oxidative stress management, and controlled tissue aging. Far from being passive decay, senescence is an actively regulated developmental phase, orchestrated through gene expression and hormonal signaling. Color change here marks a transition in the plant’s internal state—from active carbon acquisition to resource conservation and survival.

From an ecological perspective, color also plays a defensive and communicative role. Certain pigment changes deter herbivores, signal toxicity, or reduce photodamage under excessive light. Anthocyanin accumulation, for example, can protect tissues from oxidative stress and ultraviolet radiation while simultaneously altering visual appearance. Neighboring organisms—pollinators, herbivores, or even other plants—respond differently to these visual cues, integrating color into broader ecological feedback loops.

Although it is tempting to describe these color changes as expressions of “mood” or “emotion,” a scientifically precise interpretation frames them as optical manifestations of physiological condition. In animals, emotions serve to integrate internal states with external behavior; in plants, pigment-driven color shifts fulfill an analogous functional role by signaling internal status and guiding ecological interaction—without implying consciousness or subjective feeling.

Thus, color in plants can be understood as a biochemical language—one that reveals health, stress, reproductive readiness, and developmental phase. The same wavelength may signify attraction or distress depending on tissue type and physiological context. This duality underscores that plant coloration is not symbolic but informational, translating metabolic processes into visible signals that regulate interaction with the environment.

In this scientifically grounded sense, color functions as a bridge between internal plant physiology and external ecological communication. It reflects how plants “experience” favorable or unfavorable conditions—not through emotion as humans define it, but through precisely regulated biological responses that make their internal state visibly legible to the living world around them.

4. Light, Energy, and the Integrative Environmental “Master Force”

Photobiology, Temporal Rhythms, and Systems-Level Regulation of Plant Life

In classical physics, the speed of light in vacuum is constant, a principle confirmed by extensive experimental evidence and fundamental to modern physics. However, biological systems do not respond to light solely as a fixed-speed physical constant. Instead, living organisms—particularly plants—respond to light as structured energy, characterized by wavelength, intensity, duration, periodicity, and directional coherence. It is these dynamic properties of light, rather than its velocity, that drive seasonal variation and biological differentiation.

Plants do not measure light in meters per second; they measure it in time, frequency, and spectral composition. This distinction explains why long-day and short-day plants respond differently under what appears to be the same sunlight intensity. The key factor is photoperiodism—the biological response to the relative length of day and night—mediated by internal molecular clocks synchronized with environmental light–dark cycles. Even when total sunlight energy is similar, changes in day length alter gene expression, hormone production, and developmental pathways.

At the molecular level, plants possess specialized photoreceptors (such as phytochromes and cryptochromes) that detect specific light wavelengths and convert them into biochemical signals. These signals regulate flowering time, stem elongation, leaf expansion, and dormancy. Importantly, plants measure night length, not day length—a clear indication that biological timekeeping, rather than raw light intensity, governs developmental decisions. This reveals light as a temporal signal as much as an energy source.

From a physical perspective, light exhibits wave–particle duality, meaning it carries energy in discrete quanta while propagating as oscillating electromagnetic waves. Plants are exquisitely tuned to these oscillatory properties. The rhythmic absorption of photons entrains circadian clocks, aligns metabolic cycles, and synchronizes growth with seasonal and planetary rhythms. In this sense, life responds not to static illumination but to structured oscillations embedded in the environment.

The concept I describe as a “Master Force” can be scientifically reframed as the integrated field of environmental rhythms—a convergence of solar radiation cycles, Earth’s rotation, orbital dynamics, atmospheric circulation, and electromagnetic energy flow. Together, these factors create predictable patterns in light availability, temperature, humidity, and wind. Plants evolve within this rhythmic framework and depend on it for survival. Growth, flowering, senescence, and stress responses all emerge from continuous interaction with these coupled environmental oscillations.

Wind patterns influence transpiration and gas exchange; light cycles regulate photosynthesis and hormonal timing; temperature gradients affect enzyme kinetics and membrane stability. None of these forces act in isolation. Instead, they form a coherent environmental system that governs biological behavior across scales—from gene expression to ecosystem structure. What appears philosophically as a single guiding force is, scientifically, a systems-level integration of energy flows and temporal signals.

Crucially, plant responses to environmental change are not random. They follow phase-locked rhythms, meaning internal biological cycles synchronize with external periodic forces. This synchronization allows plants to anticipate change—flowering before optimal pollinator availability, entering dormancy before winter stress, or adjusting growth direction in response to shifting light fields. Such anticipatory behavior reflects not consciousness, but predictive biological regulation driven by rhythmic environmental input.

Thus, while physics confirms the constancy of light’s speed, biology reveals that life is shaped by how light arrives in time, not merely how fast it travels. The environment functions as a structured energetic field—one that integrates light, motion, and matter into rhythms that guide plant growth, resilience, and survival. In this scientifically grounded interpretation, the “Master Force” is not a mystical wave, but the ordered dynamics of energy and time that link cosmic processes to living systems on Earth.

5. The Philosophy of Plant Consciousness

 

Biological Awareness, Distributed Intelligence, and Ethical Responsibility

Plants are unequivocally alive in every biological sense: they respire, metabolize energy, grow, reproduce, communicate, and respond dynamically to internal and external conditions. Modern biology no longer views plants as passive matter, but as active, self-regulating systems capable of sensing their environment and modifying behavior accordingly. What remains debated is not whether plants respond, but how concepts such as awareness, intelligence, and consciousness should be defined beyond animal-centric frameworks.

Plants lack brains and subjective experience as humans understand it. However, they possess distributed sensory architectures that allow continuous environmental monitoring and coordinated response. Roots detect chemical gradients, moisture, gravity, and neighboring organisms; leaves sense light spectra, temperature, and atmospheric composition; vascular tissues transmit electrical and chemical signals across the entire organism. These integrated processes enable plants to maintain internal stability, anticipate environmental change, and optimize survival—hallmarks of biological awareness, even in the absence of consciousness as traditionally defined.

From a functional perspective, many plant structures serve roles analogous to those performed by specialized systems in animals. Bark functions as a protective barrier against mechanical damage, pathogens, and thermal stress. Roots form extensive sensing and signaling interfaces with soil ecosystems, integrating information across large spatial scales. Volatile compounds released by flowers and leaves communicate reproductive readiness, stress, or defense status to pollinators, symbionts, and neighboring plants. These processes are not symbolic emotions, but biological expressions of internal state, translated into chemical, electrical, and structural signals.

The idea that plant “emotions” exist in frequencies beyond human perception can be scientifically reframed as recognition that many biologically meaningful signals are invisible, inaudible, and intangible to human senses. Electrical potentials, calcium waves, hormonal gradients, and chemical volatiles all carry information essential to plant life, despite operating outside ordinary sensory awareness. Their reality is confirmed not by intuition, but by reproducible measurement and experimental validation.

Philosophically, this challenges the long-standing assumption that consciousness—or moral relevance—must be binary: present in animals, absent in plants. Instead, contemporary systems biology suggests a continuum of responsiveness, where living organisms differ not in whether they interact meaningfully with the world, but in how that interaction is structured. Plants express agency through growth, allocation, and signaling rather than movement or deliberation. Their “decisions” are encoded in biochemical pathways and developmental trajectories rather than neural thought.

Recognizing this does not require attributing suffering, pleasure, or self-awareness to plants. Rather, it calls for a recalibration of ethical language. Harm to plants is biologically consequential, disrupting organized systems of life that support ecosystems, climate regulation, and food webs. Ethical consideration, therefore, need not rest on plant consciousness in the human sense, but on respect for living systems and their intrinsic organizational value.

Care for plants—through sustainable cultivation, conservation, and restraint—aligns scientific understanding with moral responsibility. It acknowledges that plants are not inert resources, but participants in a shared biosphere governed by interconnected energy flows and feedback systems. To damage plant life without necessity is to disrupt these systems; to protect and nurture it is to sustain the conditions that make all complex life possible.

In this scientifically grounded philosophy, plant consciousness is not mysticism, nor is it human emotion projected onto greenery. It is a recognition that life expresses awareness in many forms—some cognitive, some chemical, some structural—and that humans, as conscious agents, bear responsibility toward the broader continuum of living organization that sustains us.

6. Conclusion

                                                                                                    

Plants as Active Biological Systems in a Living Energy Continuum

Plants are not passive components of the natural world; they are active, responsive, and self-regulating biological systems embedded within continuous flows of energy, matter, and information. Through photosynthesis, plants transform solar radiation into chemical energy, forming the foundational energetic link that sustains nearly all life on Earth. This role alone establishes plants not as silent bystanders, but as primary architects of the biosphere.

Growth, flowering, fruiting, senescence, and decay are not emotional states in the human sense, yet they are measurable physiological phases governed by precise genetic, biochemical, and environmental regulation. Blooming represents a state of metabolic surplus, hormonal balance, and reproductive readiness, while decay reflects controlled nutrient reallocation, stress signaling, and the natural completion of a life cycle. These transitions are not random; they are structured responses to light cycles, temperature, water availability, and internal energy status.

Every leaf functions as a dynamic interface for gas exchange, light absorption, and thermal regulation. Every flower represents an optimized evolutionary solution for reproduction through signaling, attraction, and timing. Every seed embodies stored energy, genetic information, and environmental anticipation—capable of remaining dormant until external conditions signal viability. Collectively, these structures communicate the internal state of the plant to its surroundings, translating invisible physiological processes into visible form.

At the ecosystem level, plants continuously exchange information with their environment through chemical signals, electrical responses, and resource modulation. They respond to stress, cooperate with symbiotic organisms, warn neighboring plants of threats, and adjust growth strategies in anticipation of environmental change. These behaviors reflect biological awareness without consciousness—a mode of life in which responsiveness is expressed through structure, chemistry, and growth rather than sensation or intention.

Modern science increasingly recognizes that life exists along a continuum of organizational complexity, unified not by shared consciousness but by shared dependence on energy flow, feedback regulation, and adaptive response. In this continuum, plants occupy a distinct and indispensable domain: rooted yet dynamic, silent yet communicative, stationary yet deeply interactive. Their existence demonstrates that responsiveness to the environment does not require movement, perception as humans define it, or subjective experience to be real and meaningful.

Understanding plants in this way reshapes humanity’s relationship with the living world. It replaces the outdated view of plants as inert resources with a recognition of them as living systems whose integrity underpins ecological stability, climate regulation, and food security. Ethical responsibility toward plants does not arise from attributing human emotions to them, but from acknowledging their central role in sustaining life and maintaining planetary balance.

Ultimately, wherever energy flows in structured, self-organizing ways, life emerges. Plants are the most enduring expression of this principle—transforming light into matter, time into form, and environment into living structure. In recognizing their active role, science and philosophy converge on a simple truth: life is not defined by voice or motion, but by the continuous, responsive organization of energy across time.

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