Starting with Google Ads can feel more confusing than most beginners expect. Many people search for how to buy Google Ads or how do I buy Google Ads as if the process is only about paying for clicks. In reality, a good setup starts before the campaign is even created. If the basics are weak, the budget disappears fast and the results become hard to understand.
That is why beginners need a roadmap, not just instructions. A simple step-by-step process helps avoid random decisions, missed settings, and early mistakes. In some cases, businesses that need a quicker launch also look for a simpler path to campaign readiness when they do not want delays at the very beginning. Still, even with faster options, the structure behind the campaign matters most.
Step 1. Prepare the essentials before opening Google Ads
Before you buy ads on Google, make sure you have the foundations ready. A campaign should not begin with keywords or ad copy. It should begin with business clarity.
Prepare these elements first:
your main offer;
the landing page you will send traffic to;
one clear action you want the visitor to take;
basic pricing or value proposition;
access to analytics tools.
If the page is weak, the ads will not save it.
Step 2. Choose one campaign goal
A beginner mistake is trying to do everything at once. More traffic, more calls, more sales, more awareness — all in one campaign. That usually creates messy results.
Start with one primary goal:
leads;
online purchases;
phone calls;
website traffic;
brand awareness.
A single goal makes it easier to choose campaign settings, measure success, and improve performance later.
Step 3. Define keywords by intent
Many beginners pick keywords based only on volume. That is risky. The better method is to think about what the user actually wants.
A simple keyword structure looks like this:
informational queries;
comparison queries;
action-oriented buying queries;
branded searches.
For example, someone asking a broad question is very different from someone ready to purchase. That is why buying Google Ads traffic works better when keyword groups are built around search intent, not just popularity.
Step 4. Write ads that match the search
Once the keywords are grouped, the ad copy should reflect them clearly. Relevance matters more than trying to sound clever.
A beginner-friendly ad should include:
a headline connected to the search query;
a direct benefit;
a clear next step;
a landing page that continues the same message.
If the keyword, ad, and landing page all say different things, performance usually suffers.
Step 5. Set a realistic budget and bidding approach
Another common beginner problem is choosing a budget without a plan. Some advertisers spend too little to collect meaningful data. Others spend too much before they know what works.
A safer approach is:
start with a controlled daily budget;
monitor search terms and click quality;
avoid scaling in the first few days;
adjust only after early data appears.
The goal of the first stage is not aggressive scaling. The goal is learning.
Step 6. Install tracking before launch
This is one of the most important steps. Without tracking, even a well-structured campaign becomes guesswork. Beginners often focus on how to buy a Google ad, but forget to measure what happens after the click.
At minimum, you should check:
form submissions;
purchase events;
call tracking if relevant;
basic analytics integration;
conversion values where possible.
For advertisers who want fewer setup delays, some also consider a more prepared setup for early campaign stability before pushing campaigns live. But whether the account is new or already organized, tracking must be in place before real spend begins.
Step 7. Review everything before launch
Before activating the campaign, do a final check. This simple habit prevents expensive mistakes.
Review this checklist:
correct targeting;
relevant keywords;
no obvious mismatch between ad and landing page;
working tracking;
correct billing setup;
clear conversion goal.
A five-minute review can save days of wasted budget.
Step 8. Watch the first 7 days carefully
The first week is not the moment to panic or make endless changes. It is the moment to observe.
During the first 7 days, focus on:
search term quality;
click-through rate;
early conversion signals;
landing page behavior;
wasted spend patterns.
Do not judge success too fast. Instead, look for signs that the campaign is attracting the right audience and sending them into a working funnel.
Final takeaway
A beginner-friendly Google Ads setup is not about doing everything at once. It is about moving in the right order: prepare the offer, define the goal, choose intent-based keywords, write relevant ads, set a realistic budget, install tracking, review the setup, and watch the first week carefully.
When beginners follow a roadmap instead of guessing, Google Ads becomes much less stressful and much easier to improve over time.
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria Email: nlemchukwu.emmanuel@funai.edu.ng
Department of Political Science, Alex Ekwueme Federal University,
Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
Onyeacho Chike, ESQ
Department of Criminology and Security Studies,
University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
Izuogu Augustine
Department of Criminology and Security,
University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Imo State
Nwadiani Grace Chinelo
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
Email: nwadianigracy@@gmail.com
Abstract
The present study examined public perception of police corruption and police community relationship in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The study adopted quantitative method of data collection, sampling of 399 which comprises 243 males and 156 females, with stratified and simple random sampling technique. The study is anchored on structural functionalism theory as its framework. The findings of the study revealed that the public tends to dislike the police and as such, do not trust the police which in turn, alienates positive police-community relationship. The high practice of bribery, corruption, extortion and brutality on citizens impedes the trust and confidence of the public towards to the police. The study recommends that there should be periodic host of mutual police-community programme and festive by the police to enhance positive relationship with the public. Active team should be established and improved on proper surveillance, monitoring, evaluation and auditing the activities of the police force.
Keywords: Community Relation, Corruption, Police, Police-Community Relationship, Police Corruption
Introduction
The police is arguably the most visible agent of government and citizens often assess the character of a government through its police force. This is because the police are the “guardians” of society. To a large extent, the growth, actions and behaviours of the police as an institution, not only reflect the political and economic character of society, but also mirror what those in power are willing or able to tolerate or condone or perhaps even demand of the police. Thus any adequate analysis of the problems and challenges of the Nigeria Police must start with the appreciation of the history and dynamics of its development, which from its infancy in 1861 was characterised and cultured in impunity, incivility, brutality, a lack of transparency and accountability all of which eventually metamorphosed into large scale corruption. Corruption within the Nigeria Police is not unique. Corruption exists in the Nigeria Police Force much the same as it does in any other police organisation the world over, except perhaps, in terms of its extent and the organisation’s reaction to it. However, the issue of corruption in the Nigeria Police cannot be treated in isolation of the larger society. To achieve any success in combating corruption in the Nigeria Police one has to take a holistic approach and most importantly understand the growth and existence of corruption within the police (ICPC, 2008)
Corruption in the police organisation is not just limited to Nigeria as it also has global antecedent. In Palestine, It has been repeatedly asserted by a number of observers and monitoring organizations that corruption within Palestinian institutions (public, private, and civil society organizations) is prevalent (ICHR, 2012a, Ramahi, 2013, AMAN, 2013). According to several opinion polls and recent reports, Palestinian police were reported to be involved in “patronage, nepotism, and favoritism”, “prejudice”, “police brutality”, and “waste of public funds” (ICHR, 2012a; AMAN, 2012). They were rarely reported to be involved in other serious forms of corruption such as bribery, “the fix”, and “direct criminal activities”. In spite of this, the subject of police corruption has received very little attention in the research literature on Palestine. This may be due to a number of reasons. As with most police organizations, the Palestine police leaders might not be open to having outside researchers investigate such a sensitive topic. Police officers within the Palestine police might also be reluctant to discuss corruption for fear of damaging the image of the Palestinian struggle against the occupation and other possible fallouts. Finally, the nature and extent of police corruption are difficult to capture and gauge accurately using empirical methods.
In contemporary Nigeria, the public sees the police as an instrument and face of the government in power that is always ready to unleash terror at the slightest opportunity, hence they are held in low regard and do not enjoy the habitual cooperation of the public. The public perception of the police is not shaped by the kind of job they are called upon to do but by the attitude of the personnel. Their roles in many cases denigrate the law, endangering the citizens and blotting the institutional reputation of the police that they represent. The police no doubt know that they are not liked by the public, despite the fact that they risk their lives to protect them. At the very slightest opportunity, they are booed and jeered at by the public who call them derogatory and disgusting names. This dislike or resentment of the police apparently has some bearing on Nigeria Police colonial history. The police are conceived, not as a service organization for native, because of the use to which the colonial masters put the police that were harassing and arresting tax defaulters, brutalizing trade unionists and other nationalists, and torturing persons accused of criminal offences, nobody wanted to have anything to do with the police. It will be seen, therefore, that from the beginning, a serious communication gap was built between the police and the public and this mutual distrust rather than disappear has continued to grow wider. The situation is so bad that it became fashionable for parents to threaten their unwary and troublesome children with police presence (Odu cited in Asemota, 2012). The unfortunate mundane picture of the police painted here by the public has created serious problems for the police/public relations.
Brief Overview of Nigeria Police and Police-Community Relationship
What is today known as the Nigeria police force is the brainchild of the British colonial government and it dates back to 1861, following the annexation of Lagos (Tamuno, 1970). Although various nationalities all had their local ways of policing before the advent of the British colonialists, but such arrangements were based on a part-time basis. Most of these police were not paid formal salary; they got their rewards from gifts and gratifications in an informal way and they were natives of the area they policed. Dambazau (2004) noted that the Nigeria police, from inception, was not put in place to protect the interest and as well as the wellbeing of the people. The Nigerian police was borne out of the desire by the British colonialists to protect themselves, their interest and their trade. The British consul charged with the administration of Lagos established a Consular Guard in Lagos by the Police Act of 1861 to maintain law and order. In 1861, the 30-member Consular Guard was renamed Hausa Guard. It was further regularized in 1879 by an ordinance creating a constabulary for the Colony of Lagos thus the Hausa Guard became known as Hausa Constabulary and its men mainly drawn from among the Hausa ethnic group. The constabulary was mainly military in character, though it performed some police duties (Tamuno, 1970).
In 1861, the Lagos Police Force was created and armed like the Hausa Constabulary. With the proclamation of Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914 until 1930, they were merged to form the present Nigeria Police Force with headquarters in Lagos (Tamuno, 1970). In 1943, the Northern and Western Regions of Nigeria established their own regional police forces. All the northern and southern protectorates police forces were merged with the Nigeria Police Force in 1968 and with the creation of Abuja as Federal Capital Territory in 1976, the headquarters of Nigeria police shifted from Lagos to Abuja ( Alemika & Chukwuma, 2000). Currently, the Force Headquarters of the Nigeria Police is located at Shehu Shagari Way, Abuja Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Since 1976, the Police Force has been undergoing series of structural changes. Like promotion, establishment of departments more zonal and state commands, divisions and special branches to checkmate its public relations and consequently upsurge of crime in the country. Police cannot perform their duties without having a good relationship with the community wherein they serve. Similarly, the community will live in absolute anxiety and fear of attack without police. There is need to maintain and sustain a mutual relationship between the police and public in the society. Akpotu (2003) contends that the Nigeria police have a very poor relationship with people right from time. This is as a result of corruption, envy and brutality that they mete out to the people. In any rally or demonstration, they turn to fuel the event by shooting the public. Mbachie (2005) lamented that the practice of the police does not help matters in promotion of cordial relationship with the public. The police cause many accidents that claimed lives through their checkpoints on the roads. Ehon (2003) also asserted that the culture of monetization and the tendency to get rich quick among members of the police force have affected their relationship with the public. He further expressed his feeling that police do not believe in hard work; they have thrown the values of the society into the dustbin. With the above stated problems, the public seem to perceive the police as enemies. This has made the police to come out with some programmes aimed at establishing a cordial and friendly relationship with the public. Yecho (2005) maintains that the police enforce law in a way that is essentially indiscretion. According to him, they seek to favour culprits who are highly influential in the society to the detriment of the common masses. They appear blind to justice and equity and consequently twist the law to suit their selfish interest. By implications, the police rather than effectively controlling crime are actually in the habit of violating the laws of criminal justice system in order to protect those in high positions and control of power and resources (Yeche, 2005). Adesina (2003) sums it up that police-community relationship in Nigeria has been a poor one. The police are disliked instead of liked, distrusted instead of trusted, hated instead of loved. They cause disharmony instead of harmony and this has resulted in total loss of confidence by the public in the Nigeria police. This has become evident of the poor police-public relations in Nigeria.
A good rapport and goodwill between police and the public enable police to serve the public better and the public also feel better. Black (2011) maintains that under modern conditions, no government organization of any kind can operate successfully without the cooperation of its publics. These publics may be both at home and overseas, but mutual understanding will be a potent factor for success in every case. The police require knowledge on how the community operates in order to take full advantage of the facilities and services provided by the police. There is clearly need for good police public relationship to help citizens understand the responsibilities of Nigeria Police Force in the society. Good police public relations enables the police to have a better understanding of the public’s concerns especially crime related issues, and citizens are more inclined to report crimes that occur to the police, provide tips and intelligence to the police, willingly serve as witnesses, and happily participate in criminal justice system. Incidentally, police also become more proactive thereby preventing crimes before they occur or minimizing their impact, instead of simply reacting to calls for service from members of the public. Good police-public relations prevents the possibility that the pubic think that police are simply a mechanism for intelligence collection and as such denying them vital information that would aid in crime detection, prevention and apprehension of criminals. Poor police public relations denies the police basic understanding of public problems, goals, desires, and in turn the public also are denied access to the police especially those in need of the police services. They perceive police as an agent that occupies an out-of-touch force that does more harm than good to the public. In these situations, police rarely assume a reactive mode of response to public problems. It is evident that the Nigeria police are highly and visibly subservient to the rich and powerful, even in the rendering of services and as such spoiled their relationship with the public. The Nigeria police have engaged themselves in much brutality on the poor masses. In this way, they hinder the desired public cooperation. Finally, public participation involves members of the public taking an active role in trying to genuinely help the police to illicit information on the whereabouts of criminals in the society. Indeed, the failure of the police in Nigeria and other developing countries generally can be traced to ignorance, lack of trust by the public and the total uncooperative posture due to police insensitivity to the suffering of the people. The police should stop being snipers but learn to stop snipers in Nigeria. Benjamin (2001) also points out that the police have not been useful nor helpful in promoting its image before the general public, as there are many cases of murder, assassination, and robbery which took place in the society that have lasted for two or more years without the police’s identification of the culprits, let alone arresting and prosecuting such groups or gangs. The failure of the police according to Benjamin to either apprehend killers of robbery victims and assassins all over the county has apparently reinforced the belief of critics who describe the police force as dubious, corrupt, inept and brutal.
Objectives of the Study
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study;
1. Ascertain the public perception of police corruption on police-community relationship in South East, Ebonyi State, Nigeria?
2. Identify factors responsible for the poor state of police-community relationship in South East, Ebonyi State, Nigeria?
3. Suggest possible measures could be adopted to curb police corruption and enhance police-community relationship in South East, Ebonyi State, Nigeria?
Concept of Police-Public Relation
Public Relations refers to a management function of a continuing and planned character, through which public or private organization and institution seek to win and retain the understanding, sympathy, and support of those with whom they are or may be concerned by evaluating public opinion about themselves, in order to correlate as far as possible, their own policies and procedures to achieve by planned and widespread information, more cooperation and more efficient fulfillment of their common interests (IPRA at the Hague, 1960 as cited in Keghku, 2005). Public relations entail the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or an organization with the public interest, and executes a programme of action to earn public understanding and acceptance (Grisworld, 1977 in Keghku, 2005). Black (2011) defines public relations as a practice and the art of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organization’s leadership, and implementing planned programmes of action which will serve both the origination and the public interest.
Police-community relations refers to a management function of a planned and continuing character whereby the police as a public institution seek ways to win and retain the understanding, sympathy, support, and co-operation of members of the public both as individuals and a collectivity towards effective discharge of their statutory responsibilities as a crime prevention and fighting outfit in society (Chukwuma, 2005). As a corollary to the foregoing, in the police-public relations endeavour, it is not only the police that make the move but also the public who are also expected to embrace every move by the police towards establishing cordial relations between the two parties in the efforts at crime fighting and prevention of social disorder. The foregoing -shows that any meaningful police-public relations is expected to be a two-partite move towards cooperation and support for crime fighting and social disorder prevention. That is n to say, like in the case of corporate image management in business administration, police-public relations as an endeavour should not be “monologic” (coming from one party) but “dialogical” in nature (Massey, 2013). Worthy of note here again is the relationship between the two concepts of police-community relations and community policing. All too often since the mid 1980s it made its debut into the Nigerian soil as an attempt to strengthen the obvious decline in the capability of the conventional police to stem the rising wave of criminality across Nigeria, the concept and practice of community policing has been widely confused with that police public relations. The point is that while police-community relations is an integral part of the larger practical project known as community policing, the two mean different things. For instance, while police-community relations is an intangible attitudinal construct, community policing is a practice that entails police-community partnership and community problem solving (BJA, 2008).
Factors Impeding the Effectiveness of Police-Community Relationship
There is no doubt that the effectiveness and efficiency of the Nigeria police have been under stress and adversely affected by various problems such as inappropriate policing orientation and strategies with emphasis on reactive instead of proactive/preventive measures, brutality against citizens, including extrajudicial killing, corruption and extortion, poor performance in the areas of intelligence analysis and utilization as well as investigation and perversion of the course of justice etc (Jike, 2003; Ekpeyong, 1987; Alemika, 1993; Onoge, 1993). Onoge (1993) observed that the sloganeering “Police is your friend” in present-day Nigeria notwithstanding, the rival popular image of the police as corrupt “kill and go” squad has not abated. Onoge wondered that despite three decades after independence Nigeria still quests for a social order based not on brute force but on just and moral consensus. Violence, inter-communal and religious conflicts remain, corrupt looting of the national treasury continues to occur, all sorts of violent crime are committed with reckless abandon in the full glare of the police statutorily charged with public peace and order maintenance; all of these signal the lack of commitment to orderly development of the Nigeria socio-political space (Onoge, 1993). Till date, it is somehow very disturbing that despite the constitutional powers granted the police to maintain public peace, safety and general security in Nigeria, the quality of security has nothing to be proud of and it has no doubt generated a great deal of controversies (Odekunle, 2004) Odekunle declared “ Nigeria police force falls short of optimum performance”. This is manifest in the widespread inefficiencies, corruption, unfairness in dealing with suspects, occasional over-use of legitimate force, bad temper, bullying, and other abuses of citizen’s rights with impunity. The Apo six killings in Abuja by the police in 2005 is an example (Brewier, Gueke, Hwne, Moxon-Browne and Wilford, 1996). Ekpeyong (2007) argued that there were reports of some crimes committed with the connivance or participation of the police. This is also evident in „how the police protect robbers: a victim’s account‟ in Tell Magazine, December 31, 2001. It was reported in this paper that some of the special Anti Robbery squad of the Nigeria police, Lagos command, struck a deadly partnership with armed robbers, helping them escape justice and threatening the lives of victims who make efforts to recover their stolen property. Ekpeyong also observed that there were cases of alleged destruction of crime evidence and reports by the police, arrested persons released, criminal charges and prosecutions dropped in exchange for bribes or other benefits. Ekpeyong also averred that false charges were reportedly made against innocent and ignorant citizens, criminal investigations suspended and other abuse of rights with impunity were rampant among the police. The poor educational attainment, the lack of the requisite professional qualification, the recruitment of low-skilled persons, and low salary scale which had lagged behind the national minimum for several years but until now, is allegedly at the root of the misdeeds of the police and high attrition rates (Ekpeyong, 2007). In line with the police inefficiency, Orobator (1993) observed that the problem of under-funding is not peculiar to the police, but said it will remain a recurring problem so long as the supply of national resources cannot meet the demand for social services. From this point, however, the under-funding of the Nigeria Police has reduced their state of preparedness and level of efficiency to a pitiful level. The acute shortage of accommodation for the policemen made the co-ordination of their activities difficult and this adversely affected their performance. Orobator maintained that the police cannot be said to be better off in terms of equipment, radio and other communication facilities that can hardly be relied upon, as their capacity for mobility is at best close to zero. He said, cases of an entire Police Division having only a vehicle, which is usually not always road-worthy, are abundant and indeed there are stations without vehicles at all. The end result, according to Orobator (1993), is that the Nigeria Police Force is not adequately equipped for its job; the nonchalant attitude to work is an additional factor that has aided the inefficiency of the police in crime prevention and control in Nigeria. Alemika (2003) was of the opinion that agencies of crime management in Nigeria share in common certain problems such as authoritarian or repressive legacy and orientation, lack of consultation with and accountability to citizens; lack of policies that specifically harmonize their operations with democratic principles of criminal justice system; poor funding of activities; poor staffing and inadequate remuneration of staff; inadequate resources; insensibility/insensitivity and thereby non-utilization of scientific research, knowledge and expertise in the various academic fields of criminology, forensic criminology, police science, Psychology, penology, sociology of law, criminal justice and law enforcement to improve training, planning, operations, monitoring and evaluation; corruption; lack of institutionalized mechanisms by which the agencies are answerable to the public for their activities and lack of coordination to achieve efficiency (Alemika, 2003).
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on the extant theory of Talcott Parsons 1956 Structural Functionalism. Functionalism draws its inspiration from the ideas of August Comte (1798-1857), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Talott Parson (1920-1979), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Robert Merton (1910-2003). Functionalism is a theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability (Macionis, 2010). This perspective looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms (DeRosso, 2003). The theory is of the view that both social structure and social functions are performing in the society. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements, namely, norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the “body” as a whole (Vrry, 2000). For example, each of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills; knowledge, and culture to its youth, politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power; while police provides for security of lives and property. The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example, the increase in poor police-public relations will increase the level of crime the society and vice versa. Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion. So police-community relations play a crucial role in controlling crime of corruption. Police public relations allows people to volunteer information to the police about criminal hideouts as such enabling the police to carry out their functions of crime detection, prevention and apprehension of criminal, thereby effectively maintaining a functioning society. The structural functionalist theory will be adopted as a theoretical guide for the study due to its relevance to the topic of discussion.
Methodology
Study Design, Study Frame and Sample Size
The study employed descriptive survey design. Descriptive survey gives a clear picture of a situation and it serves as a basis for most researchers in assessing the situation as a prerequisite for drawing conclusion. According to Nwankwo (2006) descriptive survey is a research method which focuses on a representative sample derived from the entire population. This design was adopted because of its ability to ensure a representative outlook and provide a simple approach to the study of opinions, attitude and values of individuals. The study area was Ebonyi Metropolis, South-East, Nigeria. The area is made up of thirteen local government. The researcher’s choice of Ebonyi Metropolis was informed by the prevalence of corrupt practices among the police officers on duty. The total population was 214,969, from which a sample of 400 was selected using Taro Yamen formula for sample determination.
Data Collection and Setting and Data Analysis
The instruments for data collection were questionnaire and In-depth Interview (IDI). The questionnaire was used in collecting quantitative data. For the quantitative data, questionnaires were processed using as Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20.0. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and tables were used for data analysis. The qualitative data were processed using content analysis.
Results
The responses were presented in tables and respondents were asked on how they perceived police corruption on police-community relationship in South-East, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
S/N
ITEMS
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Mean
Decision
1
The police are said to be the people’s friend, this assertion often plays in reality.
52
40
117
190
1.88
Rejected
2
The public have trust issues on the police and as such, do not have positive relationship with them.
200
111
36
52
3.15
Accepted
3
The public sees the police as their friend in whom they have full confidence in.
40
33
120
206
1.77
Rejected
4
Police are corrupt in it’s dealings and regarded as trigger-happy by the public.
201
100
49
49
3.14
Accepted
5
Due to the involvement of the police in bribery, extortion and other corrupt practices, it breeds negative relationships with the public.
250
78
33
38
3.35
Accepted
Field Survey, 2025
From the field survey, the public decline the notion that “police is your friend” thereby depicting that there is no friendly atmosphere of relationship existing between the public and the police. The public tends to dislike the police and as such, do not trust the police which in turn, alienates positive police-community relationship. The police are regarded by the public, as corrupt and trigger-happy agency whom often infringe on enshrined fundamental human rights. The study also reveals that, the negative relationships between the police and public, stems from bribery, corruption and extortion imminent in the police.
Table 9: Identify Factors Responsible for the Poor State of Police-Community Relationship in Ebonyi State.
S/N
ITEMS
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Mean
Decision
1
The high practice of bribery, extortion and brutality on the citizens has often impede the trust and confidence on the police.
215
99
51
34
3.24
Accepted
2
The dented relationship of the police and public is caused by the high practice of corruption imminent in the organization
199
125
40
35
3.21
Accepted
3
Lack of professional practices and conduct in matters regarding the public renders poor police-community relationship.
189
111
36
63
3.07
Accepted
4
Absence of proactive policing and lack of intelligence leading to arrest of innocent people causes loss of confidence in the police by the public.
230
89
54
26
3.31
Accepted
5
Lack of community oriented programmes organized by the police to boost synergy and foster healthy relationships.
225
111
25
38
3.31
Accepted
Field Survey, 2025
Table 9 tends to identify the reason for the poor state of police-community relationship. As seen above, the table contains five statements. All the statements contained in the table were accepted following proper mean score analysis. This implies that, there wholesome agreement with the information depicted by the researcher. The study reveals that, the high practice of bribery, corruption, extortion and brutality on citizens impedes the trust and confidence of the public towards to the police. The police are said to act unprofessional in discharging their duty which in turn questions their credibility level by the public, making the public not to have friendly relationships with them. The inability of the police to be proactive in crime prevention and poor intelligence leading to arrest of innocent people also contribute to the poor state of police-community relationship in Ebonyi State. Finally, the police lacks community oriented programmes and do not invest in initiatives that will enhance and foster healthy relationships with the public.
Possible Measures Adopted to Curb Police Corruption and Enhance Police-Community Relationship in the Area.
S/N
ITEMS
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Mean
Decision
1
There will be an effective police-community relationship if proper solutions are developed and implemented.
232
85
32
50
3 .25
Accepted
2
If the police conducts themselves in a professional manner in discharge of their role, there will be enhancement in it relationship with the public.
240
100
30
29
3.38
Accepted
3
The police should set up an active public complaint unit that will swiftly address community complains on erring officers.
190
140
33
36
3.21
Accepted
4
Proper check should be done on the activities of the road side policemen to penalize those involve in extortion and bribery.
151
200
29
19
3.21
Accepted
5
Police officers renumeration should be increased to meet up to average living conditions to caution bribery tendencies.
250
65
44
40
3.32
Accepted
6
Periodic host of mutual police-community programme and festive by the police will not enhance positive relationship with the public.
33
54
150
162
1.89
Rejected
Field Survey, 2025
Table 10 of this study suggests possible solution or measures that can be put in place to halt police corruption and enhance police-community relationship in South-East, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. From the above, the table contains six statements. All the statement were accepted except for statement 6 which was rejected, showing a total disapproval with the information therein. The study reveals that if the police conduct themselves in a professional manner while showing respect for human rights will definitely enhance public trust and confidence in them, thereby strengthening the relationship amongst both parties. The need for the police leaders to set up a working and effective public complaint unit to swiftly respond to public complaints will also strengthen positive relationship with the community. There should be a proper surveillance and check on the conduct and activities of the roadside officer to ensure higher standards of professionalism while discharging their duties. The need for increase in the salaries and renumeration of officers should be implemented so as to curb corruption and bribery due to poor living standards. Lastly, the police should organize frequent or periodic community-oriented programmes that will serve as avenue for togetherness of the public with the police. For such will instill confidence and trust in the heart of the public.
Discussion of Findings
The public revealed that the notion of “police is a your friend” does not play in reality as the public dislike the police. It is a love-hate relationship. This depicts that there is no friendly atmosphere of relationship existing between the public and the police. The public tends to dislike the police and as such, do not trust the police which in turn, alienates positive police-community relationship. The police are regarded by the public, as corrupt and trigger-happy agency whom often infringe on enshrined fundamental human rights. The negative relationships between the police and public, stems from acts of bribery, corruption and extortion imminent in the police.
Onoge (1993) observed that the sloganeering “Police is your friend” in present-day Nigeria notwithstanding, the rival popular image of the police as corrupt “kill and go” squad has not abated. Onoge wondered that despite three decades after independence Nigeria still quests for a social order based not on brute force but on just and moral consensus. Till date, it is somehow very disturbing that despite the constitutional powers granted the police to maintain public peace, safety and general security in Nigeria, the quality of security has nothing to be proud of and it has no doubt generated a great deal of controversies (Odekunle, 2004).
Findings from the study also emphasized on the high practice of bribery, corruption, extortion and brutality on citizens by the police which in turn, impedes on the trust and confidence of the public towards to the police. The police acts unprofessional in discharging their duty as such, questions their credibility and effectiveness level by the public, making the public not to have friendly relationships with them. Another factor also reiterated on the study findings is the inability of the police to be proactive in crime prevention and poor intelligence which most times leads to arrest of innocent people. This unprofessional act contributes to the poor state of police-community relationship in Ebonyi State Metropolis. Finally, the police lacks community oriented programmes and do not invest in initiatives that will enhance and foster healthy relationships with the public.
Odekunle (2004) declared “Nigeria police force falls short of optimum performance”. This is manifest in the widespread inefficiencies, corruption, unfairness in dealing with suspects, occasional over-use of legitimate force, bad temper, bullying, and other abuses of citizen‟s rights with impunity. The poor educational attainment, the lack of the requisite professional qualification, the recruitment of low-skilled persons, and low salary scale which had lagged behind the national minimum for several years but until now, is allegedly at the root of the misdeeds of the police and high attrition rates (Ekpeyong, 2007). Ineffectiveness of the police are contributed by poor funding of activities; poor staffing and inadequate remuneration of staff; inadequate resources; insensibility/insensitivity and thereby non-utilization of scientific research, knowledge and expertise in the various academic fields of criminology, forensic criminology, police science, Psychology, penology, sociology of law, criminal justice and law enforcement (Alemika, 2003).
The study also found out there is need for the policemen to conduct themselves professionally. Most especially the roadside officer. If the police conduct themselves in a professional manner while showing respect for human rights, it will definitely enhance public trust and confidence in them, thereby strengthening the relationship with the public. Police leaders should set up a working and effective public complaint unit which will swiftly respond to public complaints, in turn strengthens positive relationship with the community. There should be a proper surveillance and check on the conduct and activities of the roadside officer to ensure higher standards of professionalism while discharging their duties. There should be an increment in the salaries and renumeration of officers in order to curb corruption and bribery tendencies caused by poor living standards. Police should organize frequent or periodic community-oriented programmes that will serve as avenue for togetherness of the public with the police. This friendly atmosphere will imbibe trust and confidence of the police into the people.
Orobator (1993) observed that the problem of under-funding is not peculiar to the police, but said it will remain a recurring problem so long as the supply of national resources cannot meet the demand for social services. From this point, however, the under-funding of the Nigeria Police has reduced their state of preparedness and level of efficiency to a pitiful level. Shortage of accommodation for the policemen made the co-ordination of their activities difficult and this adversely affected their performance. Orobator maintained that the police cannot be said to be better off in terms of equipment, radio and other communication facilities that can hardly be relied upon, as their capacity for mobility is at best close to zero. Alemika (2003) was of the opinion that police in Nigeria is bedeviled with problems such as authoritarian or repressive legacy and orientation, lack of consultation with and accountability to citizens; lack of policies that specifically harmonize their operations with democratic principles of criminal justice system, poor planning, operations, monitoring and evaluation; corruption; lack of institutionalized mechanisms by which the agencies are answerable to the public for their activities and lack of coordination to achieve efficiency.
Conclusion
Regardless of cultural, political, or socioeconomic background, the vast majority of people have one thing in common: to live in a peaceful and prosperous community. A sense of safety and belonging are fundamental to any human’s needs, and without this, it becomes difficult to prosper and develop their best self. Integral to that sense of peace and safety is the relationship between law enforcement and the community in which they live and serve. Police-community relations is a term that can encompass everything from the physical interactions between officers and civilians to the intangible emotions between them such as respect and trust. Essentially, police-community relations are the relationship between the police and the communities they serve. Healthy police-community relations are synonymous with a healthy community.
In general, police-community relations is the relationship between the police and the communities they serve. Both officers and civilians in the community depend on these to be healthy and strong to best preserve public safety and uphold justice. Sadly, there have been longstanding practices in many police departments that have fractured the public trust, such as corruption and using high arrest numbers as a metric for gauging success in departmental evaluations.
Recommendations
In line with the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
1. Periodic host of mutual police-community programme and festive by the police will not enhance positive relationship with the public. This should be a community-oriented programme aimed at harmonizing the police and public towards working in one accord. This will also present a friendly atmosphere allowing positive union in an informal setting between the public and the police.
2. There is a dire need for the renumerations and allowances of the police to be looked into. Just like the assertion posits “a hungry man is an angry man”. If a police officer is waged on poor renumeration, such person will transfer aggression to the public it is policing by extorting them thereby escalating corrupt practices.
3. The establishment and improvement of proper surveillance, monitoring, evaluation and auditing team within the police force. This team will serve in the area of checkmating the activities of the police officer, even those on road side. They will specialize in giving listening ear to the public on their complaints without delays.
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C, I. K., Chigoziri, N. E., O, E. F., U, A. K., Augustine, I., Esq, O. C., Onwe, D. C., & Chinelo, N. G. (2025). Kidnapping and Socio-Economic Development in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria- A Quasi-Social Analysis. International Journal for Social Studies, 11(12), 14–32. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/11
Igwe Kenneth C
Department Of Political Science, Ae-Funai
**Nlemchukwu Emmanuel Chigoziri, Ph.D
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Ae-Funai
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Ae-Funai
Adinde Kenneth U. Ph.D
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Ae-Funai
Izuogu Augustine
Department of Criminology and Security Studies
University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
Onyeacho Chike Esq
Department of Criminology and Security Studies
University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
Daniel Chidiebere Onwe
Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Email: Onwedaniel1990@Gmail.Com Orcid: https:/orcid.org/009-0003-4168-148x
Nwadiani Grace Chinelo
Department of Criminology and Security Studies, Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike Federal University, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Email: Nwadianigrcay@Gmail.Com
ABSTRACT
Kidnapping has undoubtedly become a growing, lucrative, and preferable alternative to other types of crime. The gravity of kidnapping has become so intense that it has virtually affected all parts of contemporary Nigerian society. This article investigates kidnapping and the socioeconomic development of the Niger Delta region. The study population is 400 respondents drawn from nine (9) states in the Niger Delta, comprising adult respondents aged 18 to 70 in six selected states of the Niger Delta. The article revealed that kidnapping initially began as a social crusade aimed at emancipating the Niger Delta region and raising awareness of its long-standing neglect, impoverishment, and underdevelopment to the international community. Nowadays, people are kidnapped on a daily basis for various reasons, such as economic, political, and personal differences. Some of the victims are killed or maimed. The article calls for the government at various levels to intensify awareness campaigns on the evils as well as punishment for kidnapping. Additionally, the enabling laws on kidnapping should be increased. The punishment for kidnapping should be as grave as that for murder and other felonious offences to further instill fear in would-be kidnappers. Finally, citizens should be encouraged to report any suspected incidence or kidnap attempt to security agencies without delay. On the other hand, more security personnel should be deployed to the various communities in the Niger Delta with better arms.
Keywords: Kidnapping, Social problem, Niger delta, Government, Policing style
INTRODUCTION
The crime of kidnapping has in recent times become endemic in the Niger delta. It has undoubtedly become a growing, lucrative, and preferable alternative to other types of crime. The gravity of kidnapping has become so intense that it has virtually affected all part of the contemporary Nigeria society.
Hardly a day passes in Nigeria without kidnapping incidents making the headlines in our villages, communities, towns and the social media. Kidnapping is an alien culture in Nigeria society. During pre-colonial and post-colonialism, and immediately after the Nigerian civil war, crimes that existed in Nigeria were burglary. theft, armed robbery, incest and rape. The perpetrators of these crimes were few by then and operated on the dark with utmost secrecy. The operations then did not pose many traits to the stability and security of Nigeria nation.
The current dimension of kidnapping became alarming in the Niger Delta region when militants in February 2006, abducted few oil workers, ostensibly to draw global attention to the dire situation in the oil- rich region of the country. The victims were mostly foreigners. Since then, the menace has so far gained popularity in other parts of the country, especially in the Northern part of the country. Now, their targets are no longer foreigners alone; but practically every Nigerian is a potential target. The group called itself “Enough is Enough” in the Niger Delta claimed responsibility.
Initially, this started as a social crusade for the emancipation of the Niger Delta region, and to create awareness of aged-long neglect, impoverishment and the underdevelopment of Niger Delta region to the international Community. Now People are kidnapped on daily basis for various reasons such as economic, political and personal differences. Some of the victims are killed or maimed before they are rescued, while others are rescued by their relatives after paying ransom.
Data from 2015 to 2023 global kidnap index by the online tourism site revealed that Nigeria was placed second among the countries with high kidnapping rates. This rating puts Nigeria among countries with serious kidnapping problems. They include: Philippines, Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil, and Mexico (Ujumadu, 20018; Ekpe, 2020). Such report could serve as an assumption due to lack of accurate statistical data. Also, it has been reported that Nigeria as at August 2021, recorded 5612 cases of kidnapping and close to 3000 dead persons in kidnappers’ den as against 4508 cases recorded throughout 2023 (Ekpe, 2023). The former inspector General of police in Nigeria stated that kidnappers and hostage-taker got N100 billion naira in ransom (about N900 billion naira) between 2015to 2023 (Kyrian, 2023). Kidnapping cases in Niger delta have been ravaging daily activities. The safety of persons in Nigeria and their property cannot be guaranteed. Kidnapping is an offence punishable by the law in Nigeria. Anybody got involved in the act is expected to face a penalty of l0years imprisonment. Apart from this, some states like Rivers, Abia, Akwa Ibom, Imo, and Delta, Bayelsa, have passed into law a bill termed “prohibition of hostage-taking and related offences law”, with death penalty as punishment for offenders; (Inyang, 2015; Ekpe,2016).
But with the surge of kidnapping incidence in the state orchestrated by the ineffectiveness of security agents particularly the Nigerian Police, social insecurity and an increase of various forms of crimes, peoples’ safety can longer be guaranteed, nightlife now becomes a bizarre to the people, particularly visitors in the State; business activities also suffers set back as people are afraid of being kidnapped, which led to the reduction in the workforce of some of these industries.
Statement of the Problem
Most Nigerians would agree that crime rates and insecurity in the country have become a source of concern over the years as the country has continued to experience steep rise in crime. Davidson (2020) points out that the general state of insecurity in some parts of the country has no doubt reached a stage where virtually everybody is now worried on the direction it is going. Presently, hardly can people sleep because of the fear of being robbed or kidnapped. Businessmen have taken flight with their businesses for fear of being kidnapped or robbed There are various organized and non-organized crime, such as smuggling of contrabands, especially firearms, counterfeiting, money-laundering, armed robberies, kidnapping, car hijacking, and human trafficking have become sources of worry for the Nigerian government. Likewise, incidents of high-profile crime and politically motivated killings and kidnapping have lately compounded the complexity of the crime situation in the country. Kidnapping is all over Nigeria and the criminal commerce of Kidnapping paints an ugly picture of the already battered image of Nigeria and become a life-threatening ailment. For instance, there is no month in Nigeria when we do not read on the pages of newspapers about cases of kidnapping of young and old people.
There are evidences that, the Niger Delta has lost hope of tomorrow because those who are involved in this ugly business find it difficult to quit because they see it as a business that can never be abolished by any government in Nigeria, in the sense that government of the day is yet to take a bold step to find a lasting panacea to this barbaric act. Onovo (2020) point to an interesting fact when he stated that the one of the barriers that reduces the capacity of governmental agencies to share criminal intelligence negates the fight against crime such as kidnapping. And that the Lack of a national process for generating and sharing intelligence, as well as the Existence of laws that unduly restrict law enforcement access to information, the hierarchical structures of sharing information, Deficits in criminal intelligence analysis. Lack of good technologies to support criminal intelligence sharing are major snag to the fight against kidnapping.
According to Brown, (2019). In his view expressed the fact that all efforts made in several spheres to address this problem have been greeted with little success and the tide has not really been stemmed. Itam (2020) records that governments, in reaction, have set up various anti-kidnapping squads across the country, better equipped with operational facilities to clamp down on kidnapping gangs, and more funds have been pumped into these agencies for maintenance and enhancement of their functioning, but the crime has continued seemingly unabated. In recent time, security enjoys the largest percentage of the budget with over Two billion eight hundred thousand Dollas (2.8$) in the 2023 budget (Nasir Ahmed, 2023). Despite this huge budgetary allocation, the issue of kidnapping has continued to be on the increase. In the light of the above scenarios, that this study intends to look at kidnapping and its implication on the Socio-Economic Development of the Niger Delta.
Objectives of the Study
The general purpose of this study is to determine whether kidnapping, can impact socio Economic Deve1opmen of the Niger delta.
While the specific objectives of the study are to:
1. Ascertain the root causes of kidnapping in the Niger delta .
2. Examine the nature of kidnapping as a crime in the Niger delta.
3. Ascertain the possible causes of the rise in the rate of kidnapping in
Niger delta.
4. Examine the consequences on the socio-economic life of the niger delta.
5. Explore other ways which would complement the ability of the police in the fight against kidnapping in the niger delta.
Scope of Study
The study focuses on “Effect of kidnapping on the Socio-Economic Development in Niger delta. This implies that, the research work was conducted within and around the Niger delta.
Theoretical Framework
The study adopted the anomie/strain theory which attempts to provide the prospective on discrepancies between societal stated goals and the institutionalized means of achieving such goal. Robert K. Merton observed that there is a major contradiction between cultural goals and social structures. He calls this contradiction “Anomie” a concept first introduced by Durkheim. Robert K. Merton’s argument posits that cultural goal of achieving wealth is deemed possible for all citizens even though the social structure limits the legitimate “Institutionalized means” available for obtaining the goals. For Merton, legitimate institutionalized means are the protestant work ethics (hard work, education, deferred gratification). Illegitimate means are force and fraud. Because the social structure effectively limits the availability of legitimate institutionalized means, a strain is placed on people. Soyornbo ( 2016). Believes that it occurs “where there is an acute disjunction between the cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capabilities of members of the group to act in accord with them” In short, strain theory posits that the cultural values and social structures of society put pressure on individual citizens to commit crime. Merton believes that this strain will affect member of the lower class, in this regard therefore, the basic assumptions of the lower class envelopment at a higher level could be seen in the study area as indicated from our findings that unemployment, unequal distribution of natural resource, nature and character of the state has prepared reserved army of youths for recruitment in kidnapping and other crime related incidences. Thus, stalling socio-economic development in Niger delta. Drawing from Jock young on Merton’s anomie/strain theory, in his recent book, the exclusive society (2020), which he located crime in relation to both structural and cultural processes. Stating that structurally speaking, young argues that the dismantling of the welfare state, alongside increasing disparities between the rich and the poor, have served to further exclude disadvantaged groups. This theory explains the social problem of kidnapping in Niger delta, and its implications on the socio-economic development, the above argument of Metron’s theory reveals the menace. This is because, many Nigerians are unemployed and are living below the poverty line of two dollar a day, they invariably innovate their own means (kidnapping) which is not in line with the societal set goals to make a living. This implies that, if there are no jobs for the teeming population of graduates, and a good take home package for salary earners, kidnapping will always be a lucrative alternative venture to make a living alongside other crimes. The Anomie theory has is justified for adding an important dimension to our understanding that kidnapping is as a result of the strain between the societal set goals.
Experience of kidnapping in the Niger delta
In Akwa Ibom state, particular in uyo capital city the list of these been kidnapped keep increasing, the Akwa Ibom State Police Command on the 5thof July2024 arrested four suspected kidnappers after a distress call which gave notification of a kidnap incident at Utang Street by Gibbs Street, Uyo. The Command’s Anti-Robbery Squad. according to the police authorities, immediately swung into action and mobilized to the scene where four male suspects, Abdulkarem Yusuf , Yusuf Waziri’, Inbinabo Sunny Iboroma and Abdulrahman Abbas were arrested.Preliminary investigations revealed that the suspects had earlier kidnapped one Abraham Ekpe at Ring Road 3, Opposite Cemetery. The gang members were arrested while they were on the verge of kidnapping one “Richie”, the friend of their victim (Abraham Ekpe). Their plan was to take them to the Odukpani Local Government Area of Cross River State. The Police Public Relations Officer, ASP Timfon John confirmed that the kidnap suspects had demanded a ransom of five million naira from their victim, but he could not pay, prompting them to also kidnap his friend. The victims were all rescued successfully and have been reunited with their families. One red color Honda Accord car with registration number BJ 615 ABC, one handcuff, one dagger was recovered. The suspects will be charged to court upon completion of investigation.
Mr. Owen Owen, an expatriate oil worker with Exxon Mobil was kidnapped in a church premises close to his Mobil quarter horn in Eket. He was released after paying some ransom. Men of God and their children are not spared as some criminals on November 24, 2008 trailed one Evangelist Ita Enyong while on his way to church and kidnapped him. The daughter of a prominent preacher in Uyo, Abel Darnina, was also a victim. The list grew to include Mrs. Comfort Aloysius Etok, wife of a formal senator politician in Akwa Iborn State, who was kidnapped on Thursday, October 16, 2008. Others include: a Lebanese working with STEMCO, Sassive Khali and Hon. Nse Ntuen, the Chairman of ALGON –Formal Association of Local Government Council of Nigeria (David, 2019; Nsoh, 2019). Also, one Mr. Ikpe of Uruan Local Government Area was kidnapped and until today, he is nowhere to be found. His incidence left people to argue that he has been sent to his grave by his abductors (Micheal, 2020).
On June 14, 2019, the father of the former speaker, Akwa Ibom House of Assembly, Chief Nelson Effiong was kidnapped and killed after ransom payment had been made. Mr. Ubong Obot (Obotex) was also reported kidnapped and his barber who came to give him hair cut at his residence was killed in the process (David, 2019; Inyang, 2019). In June 30, 2020; a businessman, Engineer, Emmanuel Okon Ekpeyong and his younger sibling, Mathias, were killed in a foiled kidnap attempt. According to Inyang. (2020), the younger Ekpeyong was shot dead by an unknown kidnapping gang after pitting up a brave resistance against the abduction of his brother who was then bundled into the booth of an Audi 80 car. However, the bravado of Engineer Ekpeyong who forced the booth open tried to escape while the car was in motion proved to be in vain as he was brought down by the kidnapper’s bullets.
A two-year-old boy, Master Favour Felix Effiong was reported kidnapped by people suspected to be ritualist. The boy according to family sources was kidnapped at about 10pm, on Wednesday, September 23 2019, on his way from church program with his mother. Also, Deaconess Ema Eshiet, mother of Mrs. Iniobong Eshiet, a former member of the Akwa Ibom State House of Assembly, was reported kidnapped in her house in Etinan Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, on Wednesday, November 4, 2019. Information holds that the woman was released upon the payment of ten million Naira in somewhere in Port Harcourt City.
One Samuel Ita Imekong, a student of the University of Uyo was reported kidnapped by an identified hoodlums on November 25, 2019. One million naira was demanded for his release (Anonymous, 2019; Shield Newspaper, December, 9). Also, on December 4, 2020, the Bank Manager of United Bank of Africa (UBA) was abducted in front of his house along Nelson Mandela road, in the evening. An undisclosed millions of naira according to source was paid (Akpan, 2020).
Bayelsa State: On February 2O06, militants in the Niger Delta first abducted a few oil workers, ostensibly to draw global attention to their dire situation in the oil-rich Niger Delta area of the country and the victims were mostly foreigners (Ekpe, 2009). Dode (2007) note that this first incident was carried out by the youths of Kou Kingdom in Bilabiri community, in the Ekeremor Local Government Area of Bayelsa State. The victims comprised Britons, Canadians and Americans, whose names were given as Texas Richards, Phil Morris, Au Wallace, Paul Sheppard, and John Steward, Lan Metocolf and peter Verrnulen. Still in Bayelsa State. On the 12th of January 2024 Bayelsa State Police Command have arrested four suspects allegedly involved in the kidnap of a 40-year-old businesswoman in the state, (Inyang 2019).
Confirming the arrest, the Commissioner of Police, Alonyenu Idu, said the victim was abducted at Opolo community in the Yenagoa Local Government Area. He said the four suspects included the wife of the alleged mastermind of the lady’s abduction.
He also linked the youth unrest in Biogbolo-Epie in the same Yenagoa LGA to the disorderly conduct of some suspects believed to be involved in the kidnap of the businesswoman.
on March 4, 2009, unknown gunmen abducted a Lebanese worker known as David in the hitherto safe koluma Okpokuma Local Government Area of Bayelsa State. David is a member of the Elite Construction Company handling the Polaku-Sabagia road construction project of the Niger Delta Development commission (Lartey, 2009). Similarly, the quiet community of Tungbo in Sagbama Local Government Council, in Bayelsa State was thrown into confusion of Sunday, July 6, 2009, following the abduction of 74-year-old woman, Lydia Epiidi, by unknown gunmen. Her abduction came barely two days after the visit of the presidential implementation committee on amnesty to the state (Ebri & Etim, 2009).
Cross River State: In Cross River State, kidnappers on Monday, November 9, 2009, kidnapped Mrs. Victoria Ickeke Idiege Omang, second wife of a Cross River State House of Assembly member N100million offer was turned down for her release, as her abductors saw it as an “insult” and further insisted on collecting N150million ransom as earlier demanded (Una, 2009). Also, the kidnapping of an unidentified 15-year-old secondary school girl who was returning from school was another incidence in Cross River State. The kidnappers called on her parents to meet their conditions or risk her life (Inyang, 2009).
Delta State: in Delta State, on December 23, 2008, an 82 — year old pa Jacob Odivwi Edjesa was kidnapped by gunmen at his residence in Emonu-oregun, Ughelli Local Government Area of Delta State. The octogenarian was murdered by his abductors due to slow response by the Nigerian Police Force (Akinrefon, 2008). Also, the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) abducted six foreign crew members from a chemical tanker “Siehern Peace”. This tanker was seized about 20 nautical miles from Escravos on Sunday July 6, 2009. The victims were Captain Yuriy Shastim (Russia), Chief Engineer. Vasvi Bondarkov (Russia),Engineer. Viktor Koshevoy (Russia), Cadet Banjit Singh Dhindsa (India), Arivando Galima and Tavares Rouirgo (Philippines) (Ebri & Etirn, 2009).
Edo State: In Edo State, the worrisome situation started in February, 2009. This was an incidence where a seven-year-old son of the Chairman of Ovia South-west Local Government Council of Edo State, Mr. Monday, Aighoaehi was abducted while he was being dropped t school. It was reliably gathered however, that the little boy was set free after ransom was paid to the kidnappers (Egbegbulem, 2009). Few days after this, another kidnapping took place in which the victim unfortunately ended up in the grave. The victim identified as the managing director of “God is Good Motors,” Mr. Edwin Ajaere was kidnapped and found dead few days later, after a N100million ransom was paid out of the N200rnillion demanded. His death was linked to fear of exposure by his cousin who was a part of the gang. The ugly incident was followed by the kidnap of the wife of Edo State Commissioner for works, Mr. Andrew Bayagbona, who was abducted in her residence in Benin City. A sum of Ni O0million ransom was demanded before her release (Ebegbulem, 2009).
Similarly, General Ademokhia was kidnapped in his farm by suspected Niger Delta militants. An undisclosed ransom was demanded for this release, which he invariably argued for not having such an amount. He spent two days in the hands of his abductors whom he later described as “very nice” people (Ebegbulem, 2009). Also unidentified gunmen abducted a Benin-based transporter, Mr. Monday Osayande, the managing Director of Big Joe Motors in Benin City. Osayande pledged to offer the sum of Nl5millon for his release, but his kidnappers refused, and as well demanded for N100million ransom (Osarogiagbon, 2009). Nevertheless, a lecturer of the Federal Polytechnic Auchi was abducted and a ransom of five million naira was demanded by his abductors who are believed to be students of his institution (Inyang, 2009). Again on Saturday, June 13, 2009, kidnappers abducted a branch manager of alone of the old generation banks on mission road, Benin, Benin City. The seizure of the bank manager came on the heels of the abduction and release of a member of staff of the University of Benin, Mrs. Eremeh, by gunmen. It was learnt that Erameh, a departmental secretary in the School of Dentistry, was abducted while she was taking her children to school on Monday, June 8, 2009.
According to the source, the gunmen who abducted the woman did not take away the children, unlike the members of the gang who abducted a medical doctor and his three children at Auchi. A sum of N10million ransom payment was demanded from the husband of Erameh for her release (Nwankwo, Aborisade & Oni, 2009).
Gunmen also kidnapped a former Chairman of the Nigerian Bar Association in Benin, Mr. Solomon Odiase, and the parents of the Chairman of Ovia North-east Local Government Area of Edo State, Mr. Faustian Ovienrioba. Sources claimed that Odiase was abducted on his way to Iwu Ovia North-east L.G.A., on Saturday evening, September 26, 2009, while the parents of the Council Chairman were kidnapped at Emah, on Monday, September 28, 2009 in the morning. No ransom was made for the parents of the Council chairman as at when report was filed in, but in the case of Odiase, N100million was demanded for his release (Fabiyi, Soriwei & Olatunji, 2009). Also, a veterinary doctor from the Ministry of Agriculture who was meant to represent the Minister of Agriculture, Dr. Sayyadi Ruma, at the annual conference of the pharmaceutical society of Nigeria, was abducted by unknown gunmen. A sum of N20million ransom was demanded from the doctor for his release (Anonymous, 2009; Punch Newspaper, November, 11).
In the first week of June 2024, six South Korean oil workers were kidnapped in Caw throne Channel located near Degema, Bonny and Akukutoru Local Government Areas of Rivers State. In the course of taking these hostages, five military personnel were killed in the raid and two policemen injured. The movement for the Ernancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) claimed responsibility for that attack. These abducted expatriate oil workers were members of staff of shell, their names were given as H.D. Kwom, A. Park, S.B. Kim, O.K. Kim and H.D. Kimi (Dode 2007, cited this view from the editorial of dailysun Newspaper, June 9, 2006).
However, on July 25, 2008, five Russians were abducted by suspected pirates from a marine carrier (Herkules) with registration number 7523192 and call sign, DSAS. The vessel was on chatter by Saipen Nigeria Limited, a subsidiary of EM Group, to their operational field at Akpo oil when it was captured 19 nautical miles from the shores of Bonny. Similarly, 2 hours later, eight expatriates from Global Gas Company, one of the gas servicing companies operating at Bonny Island were abducted by six heavily armed me in the early hours of July 26, 2008. These expatiates included: two Russians, five Latvians and one Lithuanian. The armed men invaded an LPG tanker and shot two civilians before abducting the expatriates (Isine, 2008).
Similarly the Nigerian footballer, Joseph Yobo, had put in a large chunk of his foreign earnings before his elder brother was set free by dare devil kidnappers who had trailed him from a night club to his home in Port Harcourt (Inyang, 2009).
On Tuesday, 8th March 2010, at about 0840 hours, ten-armed men dressed in military camouflage invaded road bridge construction site of Macro Engineering Nig. Ltd at Umuaturu, Etche, shot and killed one Sgt Benedict Ajoi attached to 6 PMF Maiduguri, and kidnapped four expatriates: Mr. Miland (Lebabese), Mr. Farid, Mr.’ Right and Mr. Raymond (Syrian) to an unknown destination. A N50,000,000 ransom was said to have been demanded for their release.
On Sunday, 5th August 2010, at about 0300 hours, some armed men attacked on Dr. Alexander Okopho with Miss Evelyn Gilbert While he was driving his blue colored Pathfinder jeep, along NTA Road, by Mgbuoba Market, shot him and kidnapped the said Miss Gilbert to an unknown destination.
On Monday, 24th January 2011 at about 21:00 hours, one Chidube Godwin Ibeakolam was kidnapped by four-armed men along Mbano Camp Oyigbo to an/unknown destination.
On Saturday, 5th March 2011 at about 22.30 hours, one Miss Stella and Miss Stella Ogbungba were kidnapped by Hoodlums along Rumoulogwu, Rumualogu Port Harcourt.
On Monday 21St March 2011, at about 0025 hours, a gang of three-armed men kidnapped one Benedict Kinaka and Gabriel Marcus, brother of who were members of staff of Rivers State Ministry of Transport While driving along Woji road in Port Harcourt.
On Monday 5th March 2012, at about 07:30 hours, one Miss Ma Kaii a student of the University of Port Harcourt was kidnapped by a gang of armed men operating with a white care at Ogbonda estate along Artillery.
On Thursday 8th March 2012, at about 01:40 hours, one Mrs. Ijeorna Olugu Udeh was kidnapped by armed men together with her ash colored pathfinder Jeep with Reg. no. CQ 408 AAA along NTA road. On Thursday 22 March 2012 at about 20:00 hours, one Mrs. Princess Seikibo and her friend were kidnapped by four-armed men in her Hummer Jeep along Obiri-Ikwerre.
Types of Kidnapping
Kidnapping can be categorized into three (3) major typologies. Walsh and Adrian, (1983) identified types of kidnapping based on the motives behind the incidence. These are
Politically-motivated Kidnapping
Economic/commercial kidnapping
Kidnapping for popularity.
Hostage Situation
Miscellaneous Kidnapping
Kidnapping for Robbery
Kidnapping for Murder (or other non-sexual assault)
White Slavery
Child Stealing
Ransom Skyjacking
Romantic Kidnapping
Classic Ransom
Kidnapping for rape or sexual assault.
Politically-Motivated Kidnapping: According to Ujumadu (2009), politically motivated kidnapping is the most dangerous type of kidnapping. This is because it encompasses every other type of kidnappings. i.e. the economic/commercial and popularity-seeking kidnappings. Walsh and Adrian (1983) noted that revolutionary groups seeking publicity initiated politically-motivated kidnapping in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They also used this form of kidnapping to seek the release of imprisoned guerrillas from hail in addition to ransom payments. According to them, such incidents, involved the kidnapping of the U.S., German and Swiss Ambassadors in 1969 and 1970 respectively; the cases of Signor Aldo Moro in 1978 and U.s. General Dozier in 1982 are included. Jerome (2009) described these types of kidnappers as political activists who make political demands exchange for the release of their captives.
In Nigeria, the incidence of kidnapping in 2003 and 2009 respectively reflected the political motives behind it, these were the kidnap cases of the former Anambra State Governor, Dr. Chris Ngige in 2002, and that of the father of the former Central Bank Governor, Pa Simeon Soludo (Ujurnadu, 2009). This type of kidnapping as earlier noted has been revenge or cruelty such as the desire to inflict involuntary servitude on the victim, to cause pain and grieve to victims loved ones or to commit some further crime against the victim (Walsh & Adrian, 1983).
Oraetoka (2009) argued that most of the kidnapping in Nigeria, especially in the South- east are politically motivated. Following his report, the South-East leader’s summit on kidnapping lends credence to the politically motivated theory of kidnapping in the East. These submit brought to fore, that elites have come to realize that kidnappings and associated crimes in the region were politically motivated, not criminally induced as erroneously thought before now. Oraetoka further acknowledges that, in Anambra, Akwa Iborn, Ondo States and the likes, most of the kidnappings are politically motivated. Those in government are responsible for it. A clear example was the crisis between PDP and Labour Party on June 15, 2009 in Ondo State over the abduction of a commissioner’s wife for which N10rnillion was demanded as ransom. Nwosu (2009) added to it that, in Nigeria, especially in the South – East, majority of people kidnapped are politicians. Politicians use kidnapping to settle scores with their political rivals.
Economic/Commercial Kidnapping: As earlier noted, Walsh and Adrian (1983), observed that, the over-whelming i.e. 90% majority of modern kidnapping include criminal gain. The situation in Nigeria belongs to this category. Most of these crimes are committed by criminal gangs seeking to make a fortune by collecting ransoms for, the release of their victims, this type of kidnapping for extortion occurred in the U.S.A in the 1920s and the 1930s. Kidnapping of the U.S. Charles Flyer Limburg baby boy was a clear example of economic/commercial kidnapping. Another form of kidnapping that falls within this category is the abduction and sale of women for prostitution, or concubines.
In Nigeria, this type of kidnapping is what is obtainable today. As earlier noted, the former Inspector General of Police, Sir Mike Okiro analyzed that, most kidnapping in the country are used as a source of raising funds, while over $200,000 is usually requested as money per head. To him, kidnappers and hostage Lakers got Nl5million ransom (about 100million naira) between 2006 and 2009 Kyrian, 2009) Uwake (2009) observed that this type of kidnapping is prevalent specially in the South-Eastern part of Nigeria and is gradually becoming very popular in the south – south region. Jerome (2009) viewed people who get involved in this type of kidnapping as criminal gangs especially in the Niger Delta region who align with the deploy the cover of militant activities to press home their immediate goals of financial reward. Ujumadu (2009) opined that though there had been cases of economic/commercial type of kidnapping it has reduced drastically and the most dangerous type is the one sponsored by politicians. This fact is prevalent in Anambra State of Nigeria.
Popularity-Seeking Kidnapping: Cases where certain groups of terrorists’ kidnaps and make it known to the public, that they are responsible for the act, falls within this category. Walsh and Adrian (1983) identified these crops of kidnappers as revolutionary groups, seeking publicity. They use their prowess to make forceful demands from those in authority. The U.S. German and Swiss Ambassadors who were kidnapped by Brazilian terrorists for the release of imprisoned guerrillas in 1969 and 1970 respectively were a typical example of popularity-seeking kidnapping. These kidnappers, in the cause of agitating for their needs, use hostage-taking to hasten the rapid response to their demands. By this, they make themselves popular. This is the situation in the Niger Delta. The militants most times kidnapped foreign expatriate to ostensibly draw government’s attention to their demands and afterward make public that they are the ones responsible for the act. An example of this, is the case of the first incidence of kidnapping in the South-South region of Nigeria where the group, movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). Kidnapped six oil expatriates to draw government’s attention to the plight of the region and thereafter claimed responsibility for the menace (Dode, 2007). These and many more incidents in the region made them popular.
The Nigeria Constitution and Efforts to Curb Kidnapping
In Nigeria, the anti-kidnapping law presently prescribes a penalty of 10years imprisonment for kidnappers; some states have come up with even more stringent laws, ranging from Ife imprisonment to death penalty. But the assessment of this constitutional provision reflects laxity in the implementation process. Not one reported case of kidnapping has been successfully prosecuted so far to serve as deterrent to others and as well promote the constitutional provision (Ekpe, 2009).
Rivers State was reported to be the first state to pass a law, making kidnapping a capital offence in Nigeria (Akwa, 2009). Since them other states like Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi and Imo have followed suit, with Ondo State proposing a bill awaiting implementation against the act (Inyang, 2009) Also on subsequent occasions, the National Assembly proposed a bill titled “A bill for an Act of Prohibit Kidnapping, Hostage-Taking, and Prescribes Punishment for its Contravention and other Matters Relating Thereto” (Ogbodo, 2009:6). This event was followed by invitation of the former Minister of Defense, Major Gen. Godwin Abbe and his Interior. Minister Counterpart, Dr. Shettima Mustapha as well as the National Security Adviser, Major Gen. Sarki Muktar, the former Inspector General of Police (IGP), Mr. Mike Okiro, and former Director General of the State Security Services (SSS) Mr Afakriya Gadzama To propose possible ways to tackle kidnapping in the country (Ughebe & Jimoh, 2009).
Despite these steps towards making kidnapping a capital offence that attracts “life imprisonment” and “death penalty”, the Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), has urged the governments to exercise caution in their bid to impose death penalty on anybody convicted of kidnapping, and states which have passed the bill already should abolish it and adopt a middle course in the fight against kidnapping. This is because, any proposal on death penalty as punishment would portray Nigeria as backward and retrogressive in view of the global trend, which favours the abolition of death sentence as witnessed in many countries (Ughebe & Jimoh, 2009).
Some States like Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Imo, Enugu, Abia, etc, have sealed down the operational hours of motorcyclists in their state, some have even gone far to stop their operations totally to stem down the spate of kidnapping. Several vehicles have been bought for the security agencies especially the police; their operational facilities have also enhanced with a lot of money pumped into the agency to facilitate their activities against kidnappers (Ujumadi, 2009; Anonymous 2009, Community Pulse Newspaper, October, 2022). The Government in the Rivers State of Nigeria has also set-up a special Anti-kidnapping squad. It was an elite squad that received training in counterterrorism. As their Akwa Ibom counterpart, the team has been specially equipped to enable them combat crime of kidnapping in the state. Large quantities of bullet proof vests and other accessories were provided to make their work safer and more efficient (David, 2009). On several occasions, governments have been pledging fat sum of money for anybody that gives information that leads to the arrest of kidnappers.
The security agencies have also risen to the task. Several security summits, involving the Military, Police and other Para-military agencies are always organized within the Federal and State levels of government to check the menace (Udejah, Njokwu, Nzeagwu, Ogugbuaja & Aliu 2009). One of such meetings was that of the police held on Tuesday, September, 29, 2009. The former Inspector General of Police, Mr. Ogbonna Onovo, summoned all officers of the Nigeria Police Force from the rank of commissioner and above to an emergency meeting, following the rising cases of violent crimes and kidnapping in some parts of the country. They council meeting came six days after Umaru Musa Yar’Adua, late president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, pronounced insecurity as the greatest challenge facing his administration (Fabiyi, Soriwei & Olatunji, 2009).
Following the upsurge of kidnapping in the Niger Delta, the French Ambassador to Nigeria, Jean Micheal Durnoud, declared his country’s readiness to work with the federal government to check insecurity in the region. He also stated that his country was set to activate the ministry assistance provision in the Memorandum of Understanding reached between the two countries. According to him, the Special Forces have the necessary experiences of maneuvering the mangrove areas such as those in the Niger Delta (Ogbodo, 2009).
METHODOLOGY
Baridam, (2001:51) posits that research design is the framework or plan that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data for a study. This study adopted the descriptive research design and requires the quasi-experimental design because the elements of the research interest are not under the researcher’s control. Thus, the survey method was adopted because it investigates a chosen proportion of a particular population at a particular point in time.
The population of the study will be generally composed of the total population in the nine (9) state of the Niger delta.
The study population is 400 respondents drawn from nine (9) state in the Niger delta. Comprising adult respondents aged 18 to 70 in six selected states of the Niger delta. The decision was justified since the individuals were best suited to give relevant information on this study subject matter and going by reports, these states were seen as flash points in the Niger delta,
To select samples for this study, the simple random sampling technique, as well as the stratified random sampling technique, was adopted since the population of the study consists of sub-groups; simple random sampling and stratified random sampling becomes necessary here. This ensured that an equal representation and chance is given to each stratum. Thus, this technique ensures an unbiased selection of samples in stratum or sub-groups. In doing this, we will identify and select the following states showing the 2006 population figures;
Rivers 7,476,800
Bayelsa 2,537,400
Delta 5,636,100
Edo 4,777,000
Ondo 5,316,600
Abia .4,143,100.
Total 29,887,000
Thus, this will represent our stratum from which the 400 sample population would be purposively drawn for this study.
The interview method was adopted where respondents could not give direct information on the questionnaire due to the problem of Illiteracy. In this case, tape recorders were put to use and the questions in questionnaire translated into Pidgin English and thereafter administered on those who could not read and write.
At the completion of the data collection, all responses were treated in figure tables. This helped to show briefly the trend of the data and the related variables.
The conventional means of discussion and consultation with experts in the general field of Social Sciences was used to validate our data. Such instruments are to be confirmed through discussion and consultation with experts in the field of Peace and Conflict Studies, Criminology and Security Studies, senior colleagues and others considered as experts in the field of study. From this, we come up with the final product for harmonization of various suggestions and views raised during the constructive stage.
Statistics of kidnap cases in Niger Delta
Year
Number of recorded kidnap cases
2007
4,980
2008
4680
2009
10749
2010
6051
2011
5554
2013
1288
2014
3137
2015
9416
2016
15664
2017
8937
2018
3534
2019
2895
2020
4471
2021
5612
2022
4508
2023
3647
Simple bar chart on number of recorded kidnap cases.
10
From the above two tables, there is clear evidence that kidnapping cases in niger delta began to rise upward from 2013 with several 25 recorded cases. From 2014 the number increased geometrically to 49 and 73 in 2015. From the analysis of the above tables, it shows that the crime of kidnapping has entrenched its stem in Imo State because of its economic and political advantages which affects tremendously the socio-economic development of the state.
Rivers State: In the first week of June 2006, six South Korean oil workers were kidnapped in Caw throne Channel located near Degema, Bonny and Akukutoru Local Government Areas of Rivers State. While taking these hostages, five military personnel were killed in the raid and two policemen injured. The movement for the Ernancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) claimed responsibility for that attack. These abducted expatriate oil workers were members of staff of shell, their names were given as H.D. Kwom, A. Park, S.B. Kim, O.K. Kim and H.D. Kimi (Dode 2007, cited this view from the editorial of daily sun Newspaper, June 9, 2006).
However, on July 25, 2008, five Russians were abducted by suspected pirates from a marine carrier (Herkules) with registration number 7523192 and call sign, DSAS. The vessel was on chatter by Saipen Nigeria Limited, a subsidiary of EM Group, to their operational field at Akpo oil when it was captured 19 nautical miles from the shores of Bonny. Similarly, 2 hours later, eight expatriates from Global Gas Company, one of the gas servicing companies operating at Bonny Island were abducted by six heavily armed me in the early hours of July 26, 2008. These expatiates included: two Russians, five Latvians and one Lithuanian. The armed men invaded an LPG tanker and shot two civilians before abducting the expatriates (Isine, 2008).
On Monday, 15 of January, 2009 unknown gunmen abducted a renowned author and educationist, Captain Elechi Amadi, at his home in Port Harcourt, Rivers State. He was released the following day with the demand of N300million as ransom (Ebri & Etim, 2009). On separate occasions on Tuesday, February 3, 2009, unidentified gunmen abducted Mrs. Gladys Iniette Daukoro, Wife to the Former Minister of State for Energy, Edmund Daukoru and Dr. Elkaya Igom, commissioner for works and Estate with Rivers state Independent Electoral Commission (RSIEC). The abductors demanded the pull-out of Joint Military Task Force (JTF) from Rivers State and the entire Niger Delta region before their release (Obayuwana & Etirn, 2009). Meanwhile Ebiri and Etim (2009) report that, before these incident no fewer than five persons were kidnapped in Rivers State. One of these people was a senior official of Agip Oil Company, Mr. Charles W. James, whose abductors demanded a sum of five million naira for his release. Similarly, the Nigerian footballer, Joseph Yobo, had put in a large chunk of his foreign earnings before his elder brother was set free by dare devil kidnappers who had trailed him from a night club to his home in Port Harcourt (Inyang, 2009).
On Friday 2 December 2011, at about 07:30 hours, a gang of armed men kidnapped one Mr. G.S.C. Onyeche, a Director in the Rivers State Ministry of Information, along Okra Market Road, Oyigbo to an unknown destination.
On Thursday 12th January 2012, at about 02: 08 hours, a gang of eight-armed men invaded the residence of one Mr. Agolia Aboko, Vice Chairman, PDP, Rivers State at Rukpakulushi New Layout, robbed him of his valuables and kidnapped his 13-year-old child, Isaac Aboko and fled to an unknown destination.
On Wednesday l8 January 2012, at about 21:30 hours, a gang of hoodlums kidnapped one Pastor. Peter Abanimi along Igbo-Etche road, Umuebulu. His vehicle was abandoned at the scene of the crime and was later recovered by men of the Nigeria police.
CONCLUSION
Nowadays, people are kidnapped on a daily basis for various reasons, such as economic, political, and personal differences. Some of the victims are killed or maimed. The article calls for the government at various levels to intensify awareness campaigns on the evils as well as punishment for kidnapping. Additionally, the enabling laws on kidnapping should be increased. The punishment for kidnapping should be as grave as that for murder and other felonious offences to further instill fear in would-be kidnappers. Finally, citizens should be encouraged to report any suspected incidence or kidnap attempt to security agencies without delay. On the other hand, more security personnel should be deployed to the various communities in the Niger Delta with better arms.
REFERENCE
Aborisade, S., Affe, M. and Obasola, K. (2009). Kidnap Lagos Hous Minority Leader Found in Oyo. The punch, May 28,P.7.
Akpan, N.S (2010). kidnapping in Nigeria’s Niger Delta: An Exploratory Study Journal for Social Science 21(1): 33-42
Anonymous, (2009). Investigation into Kidnap of Rescued Uniuyo Student in Progress-Police. The shield, December 9, P.7.
Inyang, J.D and Abraham, U.E (2013). The social problem of kidnapping and its Implications on the socio-economic development of Nigeria: A study of Uyo metropolis. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences.
Merton, R. (1938). “Social Structure and Anomie “, American Sociological Review 3 (October, 193 8):672-682.
National Population Commission (2006). Census. Imo State Office (Federal Secretariat Complex, Owerri).
Nwankwo, C., Aborisade, S. and Oni, A. (2009). MEND Declares War on kidnappers. The punch, January 5, p.7.
Nwaorah, N. (2009). Are Kidnappers Worst Criminals? Vanguard, March 29, p.14.
Obayuwana, O., Etirn, W. and Akpan, A. (2009). Gunmen Kidnap Daukoru’s Wife, Rivers Commisioner. Nigeria, France Align Against Insecurity. Militants Cameroon’s Gendarmes in Arms Build-Up. The Guardian, February 5, PP.1-2.
Okolo, G.U. (2002). Social Work: An Introductory Analysis Calabar: University of Calabar, pp.85-87.
Oyedele, A and Addeh, E. (2009). Kidnappers Release LG Bosses, Seize Wives, Lawmakers Denies Promising to pay Ransom. The Punch, August 10, P.10.
Shaw, C.R, and McKay, H. (1942). “Juvenile Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Delinquency and Urban Areas”
Soyombo, O. (2009) Sociology and Crime Control: That we May Live in Peace. The Guardian, September L7,pp.5 6-72.
Musa, D. D., Jangebe, S. M., Muopshin, J., Muopshin, J., & Yabo, N. U. (2026). Effects of Pre-Reading Activities on Senior Secondary Students’ Achievement in Reading Comprehension in North-Central, Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/23
Danjuma Dogara Musa*, Salisu Muhammad Jangebe, Jocelyn Muopshin, Nafisat Umar Yabo.
ddmusadagaske@gmail.com
Department of Language Education, Federal College of Education (Technical) Gusau, Zamfara State, Nigeria
Abstract:
The present study examined the effects of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in North-Central which comprises Plateau, Benue, Niger, Kwara, Kogi and Nasarawa states. The study adopted the quasi-experimental research design. Specifically, the pre-test post-test non-equivalent comparison group design. The sample size of the study consisted of 103 senior secondary students (SS2) The sample was drawn using simple random and purposive sampling techniques. Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT). was used to gather data. The Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT) measured the two reading skills namely the literal and inferential comprehension. The data collected for the study were organized and interpreted using descriptive and inferential statistics. The research questions one to two were answered using the mean and standard deviation. Hypotheses one to two were tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The findings showed that pre-reading activities motivate and sustain students’ interest in the actual reading activity. They also activate the building of related information in such a way that new information is easily assimilated into learners’ existing fields of knowledge. Though pre-reading activities such as brainstorming, use of picture and predicting play a critical role in the reading comprehension classroom, the study revealed that a significant number of teachers do not use them. The few who do, neither use a variety of them nor use them regularly. The study recommends that curriculum developers and implementers should incorporate appropriate and regular pre-reading activities for assigned texts in the reading comprehension classroom.
Reading comprehension refers to the ability to understand information presented in written form. It is a process of making predictions and confirming predictions. The ability to read and understand is, therefore, essential for academic learning because it is the foundation for success in all academic subjects. It is the essence and goal of reading, since the purpose of all reading is to gather meaning from the printed page. The ultimate goal of reading is for extraction of meaning from what the reader is able to read. It is the ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning.
Background and Statement of the Problem
Reading comprehension is the ability to read, internalize, understand, and interact with the text you are reading. It involves critical thinking and deductive reasoning to make meaning of an entire piece of writing. Reading comprehension skills are essential for students, professionals, and anyone who wants to read for pleasure or information. It’s not just about phonological awareness and reading words aloud; it encapsulates language skills such as grammar (syntax), vocabulary, and semantics, to understand the meaning of texts. You make inferences and form an opinion about the read text. Good reading comprehension involves creating images of the words you just read. Readers make connections to previous knowledge as they enjoy the text. They can comfortably answer comprehension questions and summarize parts of the writing or the entire text.
Without reading, ideas and facts stored up in printed materials and electronic sources cannot be tapped. In view of this, reading is regarded indispensable in education as it promotes cognitive growth (Beard, 2021).
Seeing the important role that English language plays as medium of communication in education in Nigeria, the ability to read and understand texts is central. Reading is one of the four basic skills of English language namely listening, speaking, reading and writing. It is the primary means through which students gain information across various subjects and discipline. It makes students understand and interpret text which helps to enhance their critical thinking. Reading exposes one to new ideas, culture, and perspective and increases one’s understanding of the world (Nwodo, 2019).
Researchers have consistently shown that both teachers and students face numerous challenges in teaching and learning reading comprehension. Many English language teachers in secondary schools lack specialized training in teaching reading strategies. According to Ajide (2020), many teachers rely on outdated methods that focus on literal comprehension and vocabulary drills rather than teaching inferential or evaluative reading skills. Teachers often adopt the read and answer method without guiding students through active reading strategies. Lack of familiarity with scaffolding techniques like prediction, vocabulary pre-teaching, pre-questioning, summarizing and previewing has effect on the students’ performance and achievement. The conventional method
employed by the teachers does not allow the students to employ various skills of reading that will aid their comprehension of the literal, inferential and critical among other skills.
In order to address the challenges of students’ achievement in reading comprehension, the following skills need to be taught systematically and intentionally which are literal comprehension and inferential comprehension.
Literal reading comprehension is an understanding of information and facts that are directly stated in the text. This ability is considered the first and most basic level of comprehending a text. The literal level is the most fundamental part of reading. Without understanding of literal meaning, it will be difficult for the students to answer questions on a passage that requires literal understanding. Inferential reading is the ability to realize the hidden concepts and the unstated relationship between the lines in a text. It is concerned with the ability of students to understand meaning that is not explicitly stated or explained in the text. Critical reading is a process of analysing, interpreting and sometimes evaluating. When students read critically, they use critical thinking skills to question the text. Critical reading helps the reader to have a deep understanding of the passage. It helps the reader to seek knowledge, develop ideas and to reflect on the objectives of the passage.
Most of the studies conducted concentrated on EFL classroom environments and at the tertiary, pre-tertiary, and preschool levels. There exists little current literature on the effects of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension. This study, therefore, purposed tofind out the effects of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in North-Central, Nigeria.
Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study was to ascertain the effects of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in North-Central, Nigeria.
RQ1: What is the difference in literal comprehension achievement between treatment and control groups of SS2 students in public secondary schools?
RQ2: What is the difference in inferential comprehension achievement between treatment and control groups of SS2 students in public secondary schools?
Scope of the Study
This research work was restricted to the effect of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in North-central Nigeria. Pre-reading activities such as brainstorming, pre-questioning, predicting were used to teach reading comprehension to senior secondary students. The variables of interest as contained in the research questions were the ability to answer literal comprehension questions, and identify inferential ideas.
Theoretical Framework
Schema theory was used for the study. The theory was first proposed by Immanuel Kant which was later developed by Sir Frederic Bartle who became the propounder of the theory in 1932 who posits that people’s understanding and remembrance of events is shaped by their expectations or prior knowledge, and that the prior knowledge is presented mentally in some sorts of schematic structures. The profounder observes that when people are asked to repeat a story from memory, they often fill in details which are not included in the original but related to what they have already known based on their cultural background. The proponent identifies means on how to guide the reader in the actual reading comprehension as a process.
Literature Review
Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading (Lawal, 2019 Adele, 2021 Asemota, 2018) Obika, 2020)). When a person reads a text he engages in a complex array of cognitive processes. The reader is simultaneously using his awareness and understanding of phonemes, phonics and ability to comprehend or construct meaning from the text. This last component of the act of reading is reading comprehension. It is the most difficult and most important of the three. There are elements that make up the process of reading comprehension. In order to understand a text, the reader must be able to comprehend the vocabulary used in the piece of writing. Reading comprehension is one of the necessary subjects in the primary and secondary levels of education. The readers are expected to drive the real information incorporated by the author, accurately. The fluency and accuracy skills motivate
the children and create the tendency to read more. This provides the basis for the use of pre-reading activities as a strategy to teach reading comprehension to senior secondary students.
Reading comprehension is therefore the purpose of reading and remains an essential part of all learning. Comprehension can be conceptualized as the extraction of relevant knowledge from texts and consists of three elements; the reader, the text, and the purpose of reading. It is the interaction between text, readers, and purpose as well as the use of reading comprehension strategies that increase comprehension. Tompkins (2011) consequently defines reading comprehension as the level of understanding of a text/message. Reading comprehension is the interaction between the written words and the knowledge they elicit from sources outside the text or message. Thus, reading comprehension is a cognitive process that is meant for decoding the meaning embedded in a text in order to understand what the author is communicating to their audience through the message. Without comprehension, reading is reduced to symbols that do not provide the reader with any information, and again, without comprehension, reading is nothing more than tracking symbols on a page with the readers’ eyes and sounding them out (Mahmoud, 2015).
Effects of Pre-Reading Activities on Students ’Reading Comprehension
Pre-reading activities are meant to give students the background knowledge they need in order to better understand a text when they interact with it. They are the activities that pupils are taken through to enable them to acquire skills for actual reading. Therefore, they are designed to prepare beginners for formal reading. Johnson (2010) states that pre-reading activities are a series of activities pupils are exposed to, as a way of preparing them for formal reading. For this reason, they can be viewed as essential tasks that should be carried out to activate learners’ schema and avoid any failures in text comprehension. Pupils familiarize themselves with the subject, vocabulary, or challenging structures in the passage through the use of pre-reading activities. Pre-reading exercises are particularly useful in fostering a love for reading and in introducing important cultural ideas. According to Ping (2014), pre-reading activities are essential to pupils’ later applications in school activities. They are exercises that give pupils the chance to decide whether to read more of a text in order to discover more intriguing ideas from it (Mikatama, 2019), bring about success in pupils’ comprehension (Malikhatul, 2019), has key impacts on reading comprehension.
Pre-reading activities are essential for giving students the fundamental knowledge they need about texts, piquing their interest in reading texts, and keeping them in a reading environment throughout their formal learning stage (Osei, 2016). According to Hasan (2011), students’ schemata can be triggered during the pre-reading phase before the real reading stage, and this can improve their comprehension of written material. It is clear that pre-reading activities are very important in the reading class and have a good impact on pupils. Pre-reading activities, according to (Villanueva, 2022), include a variety of games, comparative picture studies, and picture-storytelling exercises that are typically helpful in assisting children in developing the reading abilities necessary for formal reading. These activities are enabling activities which give young readers the thorough grounding they need to plan activities and understand the reading material (Kim & Quinn, 2013). In this view, pre-reading activities uncover and elicit prior knowledge, and the purpose(s) for reading, and develop a knowledge foundation required for dealing with the content and structure of the contents provided (Maingi, 2018).
Pre-reading activities set up and strengthen students’ foundation for reading materials, demonstrating the critical function pre-reading activities have in strengthening students’ focus and attention on the reading materials they will be reading (Franceschini, 2013). Without a doubt, the activities allow the child to gradually test out his emotional self, calm himself through emotional expression in a range of reading situations, and more easily pick up pre-reading skills (Abdulai, 2014). Pre-reading activities have drawn a lot of attention as the cornerstone techniques for introducing children to reading and maintaining their interest in texts (Maingi, 2018) and by employing these activities, readers are better prepared for the reading activities when they are motivated to read the text, which is a result of pre-reading activities. Additionally, because of their increased confidence, children are better able to complete the activity without expending too much effort, and they are more eager to participate in it. Furthermore, pre-reading activities add excitement to the activity, give the students a reason to read, and give the teacher an opportunity to assess how well the text can be understood with the aid of the activities assigned before/after reading (Osei, 2016). Hence, by providing pre-reading activities, teachers can help learners become successful readers (Dickson, 2022). The application of the pre-reading technique is effective in improving reading comprehension of narrative text (Mujahidah & Ramli, 2019) and increases reading performance.
Pre-reading activities have positive effects on students’ performance in reading comprehension (Rondon & Tomitch, 2020; Asgar, 2016) and can have positive effects on all students whether high-level or low-level, and all learners can benefit from the techniques (Hashemi, 2016). They are motivational (Nahid &Asgar, 2016), and improve students’ comprehension of texts because pre-reading strategies activate students’ prior knowledge and facilitate L2 learners’ comprehension ability of the target text (Al Akremi (2016). Therefore, the wise use of pre-reading techniques is one primary step in ensuring efficient comprehension and a more successful reading (Febriantil. 2022). Based on the forgoing arguments and empirical evidence, the following hypotheses are stated:
H1: There is no significant difference in literal comprehension achievement between treatment and control groups of SS2 students in public secondary schools H2: There is no significant difference in inferential comprehension achievement between treatment and control groups of SS2 students in public secondary schools
Importance of Pre-Reading Activities to Students’ Achievement
Pre-reading activities are strategies or exercises designed to prepare students for engaging with a text. These activities offer several advantages, both in terms of enhancing comprehension and fostering interest. Here are the key benefits:
It activates prior knowledge by helping the students connect their existing knowledge and experiences to the new text and makes the reading material more palatable and easier to understand. It Builds vocabulary: It introduces key terms and concepts before encountering them in the text and reduces the cognitive load during reading, allowing students to focus on comprehension.
It establishes purpose by encouraging students to understand why they are reading the text and sets goals, such as identifying specific information, themes, or ideas. It Stimulates Interest by engaging students’ curiosity about the topic and makes them more motivated to read and explore the material.
It promotes predictive thinking in encouraging students to predict contents based on titles, headings, and visuals and develops critical thinking skills by making them actively anticipate what they will learn. It facilitates engagement: It activities like group discussions, brainstorming, or visual analysis, foster collaboration and creates a dynamic learning environment before reading.
It reduces anxiety by familiarizing students with the text’s content or challenges this aspect can make it less intimidating and boosts confidence by preparing them for what lies ahead. It enhances comprehension: It prepares student to navigate the structure and ideas in the text and makes it easier to focus on deeper levels of understanding.
Method and Procedure
Design, Population and Sample
The quasi-experimental research design was used in the current study. Specifically, the study adopted the pre-test post-test nonequivalent comparison group design. The population of this study was all SS2 students in public secondary schools in Karu Local Government Area in Nasarawa State. The population of all the secondary schools in Karu Local Government was one thousand nine hundred, ninety (1990) students. The sample schools for the study consisted of 103 students that were in SS2 at the time of the study in the designated schools.
Instrument
The Reading Comprehension Achievement Test (RCAT) was used to gather data for this study. The RCAT measured the two reading skills namely the literal skill, and inferential skill. The RCAT was adopted and adapted from SSCE English language 1 Examination of June 1992.
Procedure
The pretest was administered for two days. Day one was for testing questions on literal comprehension while day two was used for testing questions on inferential comprehension. A comprehension passage was given and students were asked to answer five questions.
Administration of the Treatment
Treatment was administered by the researcher in two experimental schools. Treatment consisted of reading comprehension achievement test. Students in the experimental group were taught using pre-reading activities while students in the control group were taught using normal school English lessons within the periods. Treatment lasted for the periods of 2 weeks which were delivered two times a week for 40 minutes, or a double period of 80 minutes.
Administration of Post-Test
The researcher administered on the participants in both the experimental and control groups after the treatment. It was administered the same duration of time and day as the pre-test. The text items were as same as the pre-test as students were asked to use 30 minutes to answer the comprehension questions on the passage.
Analyses
The research questions raised for this study were answered using the mean and standard deviation. By this, the significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the pre-test and post-test were determined.
Research Question One
What is the difference between the pre-test and post-test literal comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in the experimental and control groups?
To determine the pre-test and post-test literal comprehension achievement mean scores of students in the experimental and control groups, mean and standard deviation were employed as presented in Table1.
Table 1: The Pre-test and Post-test Literal Comprehension Achievement Mean scores of SS II students in the Experimental and Control Groups
Group
Pretest
Posttest
N
Mean
SD
Mean SD
Mean Gain
𝒙̅-Gain difference
Experimental
49
9.76
1.74
15.24 1.88
5.48
4.60
Control
54
9.91
1.48
10.69 1.06
0.88
Table 1 shows the pre-test and post-test literal comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in reading comprehension in the experimental and control groups. The experimental group obtained a pre-test mean score of 9.76 with a standard deviation of 1.74 and a post-test mean score of 15.24 with a standard deviation of 1.88, yielding a mean gain of 5.48 after exposure to pre-reading activities. The control group had a pre-test mean score of 9.91 with a standard deviation of 1.48 and post-test mean score of
10.69 with a standard deviation of 1.06, yielding a mean gain of 0.88 The result indicated that students in the experimental group had a higher mean gain score after exposure to pre-reading activities than those in the control group who were not given treatment. The mean gain difference was 4.60 in favour of the experimental group. This means that pre-reading activities did increase the students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
Research Question Two
What is the difference between the pre-test and post-test inferential comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in the experimental and control groups?
To determine the pre-test and post-test inferential comprehension achievement mean scores of students in the experimental and control groups, mean and standard deviation were employed as presented in Table 2.
Table 2: The Pre-test and Post-test Inferential Comprehension Achievement Mean Scores of SS II Students in the Experimental and Control Groups
Group
Pretest
Posttest
N
Mean
SD
Mean SD
Mean Gain
𝒙̅-Gain difference
Experimental
49
9.78
1.48
16.08 2.52
6.30
4.54
Control
54
9.28
1.76
11.04 0.73
1.76
Table 2 shows the pre-test and post-test inferential comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in the experimental and control groups. The experimental group obtained a pre-test mean score of with 9.78 standard deviation of 1.48 and a post-test mean score of 16.08 with a standard deviation of 2.52, yielding a mean gain of 6.30 after exposure to pre-reading activities. The control group had a pre-test mean score of 9.28 with a standard deviation of 1.76 and post-test mean score of 11.04 with a standard deviation of 0.73, yielding a mean gain of 1.76 The result indicated that students in the experimental group had a higher mean gain score after exposure to pre-reading activities than those in the control group who were not given treatment. The mean gain difference was 4.54 in favour of the experimental group. This means that pre-reading activities did increase the students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
Hypotheses Hypothesis One
There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test literal comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in the experimental and control groups.
Analysis of variance (ANCOVA) was employed in testing the null hypothesis on the pre-test and post-test literal achievement mean score of Secondary School Students in the experimental and control groups. This is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: ANCOVA Result on Pretest and Posttest Literal Comprehension Achievement Mean Scores of SSII Students in the Experimental and Control Groups
Source
Type II Sum ofSquares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Squared
Eta
Corrected Model
728.256a
2
364.128
1053.624
.000
.955
Intercept
53.294
1
53.294
154.210
.000
.607
Achievement
194.150
1
194.150
561.783
.000
.849
Group
564.002
1
564.002
1631.971
.000
.942
Error
34.560
100
.346
Total
17782.000
103
Corrected Total
762.816
102
a. R Squared = .955 (Adjusted R Squared = .954)
The data were subjected to analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) having experimental and control groups to determine if a significant difference exists in the pre-test and post-test literal comprehension achievement mean scores of SS II students in reading comprehension in the experimental and control groups. Table 3 shows that F (1, 100) = 1631.971, P < 0.05. Since the p-value of .000 is less than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that, there was a significant effect of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in the experimental group. The result further reveals an adjusted R squared value of .954 which means that 95.4 percent of the variation in the dependent variable which is students’ literal achievement is explained by variation in the treatment of pre-reading activities while the remaining is due to other factors not included in this study. Hence, we can say that pre-reading activities does improve students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
Hypothesis Two
There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test inferential comprehension achievement mean scores of SSII students in the experimental and control groups.
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was employed in testing the null hypothesis on the pre-test and post-test mean scores inferential comprehension achievement of Secondary School Students in the experimental and control groups. This is presented in Table 4.
Table 4: ANCOVA Result on Pretest and Posttest Inferential Comprehension Achievement Mean Scores of SSII Students in the Experimental and Control Groups
Source
Type II Sum ofSquares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Squared
Eta
Corrected Model
845.617a
2
422.808
298.334
.000
.856
Intercept
87.861
1
87.861
61.995
.000
.383
Achievement
191.876
1
191.876
135.388
.000
.575
Group
536.714
1
536.714
378.706
.000
.791
Error
141.723
100
1.417
Total
19584.000
103
Corrected Total
987.340
102
a. R Squared = .856 (Adjusted R Squared = .854)
The data were subjected to analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) having experimental and control groups to determine if a significant difference exists in the pre-test and post-test inferential comprehension achievement mean scores of SS II students in reading comprehension in the experimental and control groups. Table 4 shows that F (1, 100) = 378.706, P < 0.05. Since the p-value of .000 is less than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that, there was a significant effect of pre-reading activities on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in the experimental group. The result further reveals an adjusted R squared value of .854 which means that 85.4 percent of the variation in the dependent variable which is students’ inferential achievement is explained by variation in the treatment of pre-reading activities while the remaining is due to other factors not included in this study. Hence, we can say that pre-reading activities does improve students’ achievement in reading comprehension.
Discussion
The results from research question one revealed that literal comprehension skill of both control and experimental groups were mostly in the poor category at pretest. After treatment, however, the literal comprehension skill of the experimental group showed significant improvement in the literal comprehension skill of students in the control group. This finding is in consonance with Osei (2016), Nurdima (2018)), who found that pre-reading activities are essential for giving students the fundamental knowledge they need about texts, piquing their interest in reading texts, and keeping them in a reading environment throughout their formal learning stage. Results obtained from research question two showed that both control and experimental groups recorded low scores in inferential comprehension achievement test at pretest as both groups had high percentage of students in poor category. At posttest, the experimental group increased in inferential comprehension skills while the control group did not improve significantly. This finding supports the research of Paul and Christopher (2017) who found out that Inferential skill helps the students to realize the hidden concepts and the unstated relationship between the lines in a text and it is concerned with the ability of students to understand meaning that is not explicitly stated or explained in the text. Result from hypothesis one as presented on table 2 revealed that the experimental group improved in their literal comprehension scores after treatment unlike the control group which did not improve as indicated by the posttest. It means that pre-reading activities had effect on senior secondary students’ achievement in reading comprehension in the experimental group than the control group. Finding from hypothesis two showed that the inferential comprehension achievement scores of the experimental group did significantly better than the control group after posttest when reading a text. Inferential comprehension is higher cognitive level of comprehension and it can only be attained when pre-reading activities are employed This view was corroborated by Naranjo (2021) who opined that; since inferential comprehension requires readers to read between the lines’ It is more challenging comprehension task. The results also agree with the views Agbevivi (2022) and Ramli, (2019) who agree that, comprehension strategies like prior knowledge for text content which are fundamental factors in gaining comprehension should be taught intentionally to learners.
Conclusion
Pre-reading activity is the activity used to elicit students’ prior knowledge to the actual reading material. The activity is intended to provide students with required background knowledge that will be needed to have a better comprehension when they interact with a text. Pre-reading has to do with what a learner brings to the reading which can affect how he/she understands what he reads. Pre-reading activities is, therefore, an effective strategy of teaching reading comprehension because of its gains it yielded to students in the experimental group. This study has established the fact that pre-reading activities have significant effects on students’ reading comprehension achievement. When the right strategy and activity are employed to teach reading comprehension among students, the number of failures would be reduced drastically. Based on the significant gains recorded by the experimental group at posttest as compared to the control group whose posttest scores did not significantly improve, it is clear from the findings that pre-reading activities can have impact on the students’ reading comprehension achievement. Findings from the study also established that the gain scores which reflected on the experimental group was a result of the use of pre-reading activities.
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Agada, J., Kuhe, D. A., & Anthony, O. N. (2026). An Autoregressive Moving Average Model for Short-Term Prediction of Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Among Farmers in Benue State. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 255–278. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/22Style
APA
John Agada1, David Adugh Kuhe 2 and Ojochegbe Noah Anthony 3*
1Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Rev, Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
2Department of Statistics, Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
3Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Rev, Fr. Moses Orshio Adasu University Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria
This study employs an Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) time series model to forecast the short-term incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Type 2 Diabetes) among farmers in Benue State, Nigeria. The data was collected from the Benue State Epidemiological Unit, Makurdi, and covered a 20-year period from January 2005 to June 2025. The study employed descriptive statistics and normality measures, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test and ARMA (p,q) model as the principal analytical techniques and procedures used to examine the data. The descriptive statistics indicated moderate variability in diabetes cases over the years, while the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test confirmed the stationarity of the series in level. Model choice based on Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Schwarz Information Criterion (SIC), and Hannan–Quinn Criterion (HQC) identified the ARMA(3,3) model as the best fit for forecasting diabetic cases in the study area. The model’s high coefficient of determination (R² = 0.8905) and statistically significant parameters (p < 0.05) demonstrated its robustness and predictive accuracy. Diagnostic checks using autocorrelation, partial autocorrelation, and the Ljung–Box Q-statistics showed that the residuals behaved like white noise, indicating a well-specified model. Forecast evaluations using Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) confirmed that the model accurately good for predicting out-of-sample values. The forecast for July 2025 to June 2027 revealed a potential average of approximately 6,420 diabetes cases per month among farmers, with expected fluctuations over time. The study underscored the growing public health concern of diabetes among the farming population in Benue State and its implications for agricultural productivity and postharvest losses. The study concluded that predictive modeling can serve as a vital tool for health planners to design early intervention strategies, integrate health management with agricultural development, and enhance the overall well-being of rural farmers.
Keywords: Diabetes, ARIMA, Time Series Forecasting, Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes, Farmers, Benue State, Public Health, Postharvest Losses
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus, often simply referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. The two main types of diabetes are type-1 diabetes, which results from the body’s inability to produce insulin, and Type-2 diabetes develops when the body either becomes resistant to insulin or produces insufficient insulin to control blood sugar levels effectively. Diabetes mellitus is a multifaceted metabolic condition marked by high concentrations of glucose (sugar) in the bloodstream Glucose is a crucial source of energy for cells, and insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, plays a central role in regulating its uptake into cells. In diabetes mellitus, this regulation is disrupted, leading to persistent hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) (American Diabetes Association, 2022).
Diabetes mellitus is a significant public health concern worldwide, with its prevalence increasing steadily over the past few decades. According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF, 2019), an estimated 537 million adults aged 20-79 years were living with diabetes globally in 2021 and this number is projected to rise to 783 million by 2045. The prevalence of diabetes varies by region, with higher rates observed in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in urban areas undergoing rapid socioeconomic development and lifestyle changes. (ADA, 2022).
In Nigeria, the prevalence is estimated at 7% and 11.35% in South-south zone. The Diabetes Association of Nigeria (DAN) reviewed that, mortality rate of diabetes from insufficient management far outweighs that of HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Cancer (Olamoyegun et al., 2024)
Diabetes mellitus is significantly Impacting farmers in Benue State with prevalence rate among yam farming population estimated at 24.9% and mortality rate of 8.61% and as led to reduced labor productivity, economic impact and health complications (Teran, A.D.. 2017)
Diabetes is associated with numerous complications that can affect nearly every organ system in the body. These complications includes Microvascular: Retinopathy (vision loss) neuropathy (nerve damage), nephropathy (kidney damage), and Microvascular: cardiovascular disease (such as heart attack and stroke), others are foot ulcers and amputations. The burden of diabetes-related complications is substantial, leading to increased medical costs, reduced quality of life, and higher risk of premature mortality (ADA, 2022).
Type-2 diabetes, also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes, is a long-term condition that affects how the body processes sugar (glucose), which is an important source of energy. In this condition, the body either becomes resistant to insulin, a hormone that helps move sugar into cells, or doesn’t produce enough insulin to keep blood sugar levels normal (Sun et al., 2021). Unlike type-1 diabetes, where the immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, type-2 diabetes usually develops slowly over time. While it was once mostly seen in adults, more children and teenagers are now being diagnosed, largely due to increasing obesity and less active lifestyles (Sun et al., 2021).
A major characteristic of type-2 diabetes is insulin resistance, which means the body’s cells don’t respond to insulin as they should. When this happens, the pancreas tries to make more insulin to help move sugar into the cells. However, over time, the pancreas may struggle to keep up with this increased demand. As a result, sugar starts to accumulate in the blood, causing high blood sugar levels (Cloete, 2022).
Several determinants contributes to the risk of developing type-2 diabetes, including obesity, particularly excess fat around the abdomen (central obesity), A sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy eating habits—like eating too many sugary and processed foods—having a family history of diabetes, getting older (especially after 45), and belonging to certain ethnic groups are all factors that can increase the risk of developing diabetes (ADA, 2022).
In Addition to insulin resistance, type-2 diabetes can also involve problems with the pancreas, the organ that makes insulin. Sometimes, the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin to keep blood sugar levels in check, making high blood sugar worse (Desai & Deshmukh, 2020).
Symptoms of type-2 diabetes often develop slowly and can include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision, slow wound healing, and repeated infections. In the early stages, some people may not notice any symptoms at all, which is why regular screenings are essential (IDF, 2019).
Treatment for type-2 diabetes aims to maintain blood sugar levels within a target range to prevent serious health problems and complications. This typically involves lifestyle modifications such as regular exercise, healthy eating habits (including portion control and selecting nutrient-rich foods), weight management, and monitoring blood sugar levels. (Desai & Deshmukh, 2020).
The management and treatment of type-2 diabetes can impose financial burdens on individuals, families, and healthcare systems. In regions where healthcare costs are primarily borne by the individual or are not adequately covered by insurance, the expenses associated with diabetes care can divert resources away from agricultural investments and productivity-enhancing measures. This can directly impact agricultural communities with reduced investment into agricultural produces, reduced income and crop loss thereby affecting their livelihood (Huang et al., 2016).
Diabetes Mellitus is diagnosed when certain blood sugar levels are met or exceeded. Specifically, a person may be diagnosed if their A1C is 6.5% or higher, which reflects average blood glucose over the past few months. Alternatively, if fasting blood sugar is 126 mg/dL or higher, or if a 2-hour blood sugar reading during an oral glucose tolerance test reaches 200 mg/dL or more, a diagnosis may be made. Additionally, if an individual has a random blood sugar of 200 mg/dL or higher along with symptoms like excessive thirst, frequent urination, or unexplained weight loss, they may also be diagnosed with diabetes (Jaeger et al., 2025).
Agricultural activities, like applying chemical fertilizers and pesticides, can have environmental consequences that can indirectly impact diabetes risk factors. For instance, exposure to chemicals such as glyphosate or organophosphates used in farming has been associated with a higher likelihood of developing metabolic disorders. Additionally, environmental factors such as air pollution and climate change may exacerbate diabetes risk factors and health outcomes, potentially affecting agricultural productivity and crop yields (whiting et al., 2011). Overall, while the direct impact of type-2 diabetes on agricultural productivity and postharvest losses may be limited, the interplay between diabetes, dietary patterns, healthcare access, and environmental factors can have broader implications for agricultural communities and food systems. Addressing the complex relationship between health, agriculture, and the environment requires a holistic approach that considers socioeconomic factors, public health interventions, and sustainable agricultural practices (Whiting et al., 2011).
Overall, while the direct impact of type-2 diabetes on agricultural productivity and postharvest losses may be limited, the interplay between diabetes, dietary patterns, healthcare access, and environmental factors can have broader implications for agricultural communities and food systems. Addressing the complex relationship between health, agriculture, and the environment requires a holistic approach that considers socioeconomic factors, public health interventions, and sustainable agricultural practices (Huang et al., 2016).
This study therefore attempts to extend the existing literature and contribute to the existing body of knowledge by modeling and forecasting non insulin dependent diabetes among farmers in Benue State using autoregressive moving average (ARIMA) time series model with more recent data.
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Method of Data Collection
The data utilized in this research work are monthly secondary time series data on morbidity incidence of type-2 diabetes in Benue state for the period of January, 2005 June, 2025 making a total of 234 observations. The data was collected from Benue State Epidemiological unit, Makurdi. The data was transformed to natural logarithms using the following formula:
where is the confirmed type-2 diabetes series observation indexed by time , while is the natural logarithm. Hence forth will be regarded as a series.
2.2 Methods of Data Analysis
Find below the statistical tools employed in the analysis of data in this work.
3.2.1 Descriptive statistics and normality measures
The mean of any given set of data can be computed as follows:
The sample standard deviation of any given set of data over a given period of time is computed using the formula:
where is the sample mean, is the sample size.
Jarque-Bera test is a normality test of whether a given sample data have the skewness and kurtosis similar to that of a normal distribution. The test was proposed by Jarque and Bera (1980, 1987) and test the null hypothesis that the series is normally distributed. Given any data set, the test statistic JB is defined as:
where is the sample skewness denoted as:
and is the sample kurtosis given below:
whereT is the total number of observations. The JB normality test checks the following pair of hypothesis:
and (i.e., follows a normal distribution)
and (i.e., does not follows a normal distribution).
The test rejects the null hypothesis if the p-value of the JB test statistic is less than level of significance.
2.2.2 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test
The Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test helps to identify if a time series is stationary or has a unit root, indicating a persistent trend over time (Dickey and Fuller, 1979).
It accounts for higher-order correlations by assuming the series follows an AR(p) process and incorporates lagged differences of the series into the regression to enhance the test’s precision.
.
where are optional exogenous regressors which may consist of constant, or a constant and trend, and are parameters to be estimated,β values arelagged difference terms and the are assumed to be white noise. The null and alternative hypotheses are written as:
(8)
and evaluated using the conventional ratio for
where is the estimate of and “the coefficient standard error is denoted as “
2.2.3 Portmanteau test
A Portmanteau test also called he Ljung-Box Q-statistic test is used to determine whether there is any remaining serial correlation or autocorrelation in the residuals of a time series. The test checks the following pairs of hypotheses:
(all lags correlations are zero)
(there is at least one lag with non-zero correlation). The test statistic is given by:
where
denotes the autocorrelation estimate of squared standardized residuals at lags. T is the sample size, Q is the sample autocorrelation at lag k. We reject if p-value is less than level of significance (Ljung and Box, 1979).
2.3 Time Series Models Specification
To specify an ARIMA model which is the model framework use in this study, we first specify autoregressive (AR) model, moving average (MA) model, autoregressive moving average (ARMA) model before specifying autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model. These models are specified as follows.
2.3.1 The autoregressive (AR) model
A stochastic time series process {} is an autoregressive process of order p, denoted AR() if it satisfied the difference equation
where is a white noise and are constants to be determined.
2.3.2 Moving average (MA) model
A time series {} which satisfies the difference equation
where are fixed constants with as white noise is called a moving average process of order q, denoted MA().
2.3.3 Autoregressive moving average (ARMA) model
A stochastic time series process {} which results from a linear combination of autoregressive and moving average processes is called an Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) process of order p, q, denoted ARMA () if it satisfies the following difference equation:
where are fixed constants associated with the AR terms and are fixed constants associated with the MA terms with being a white noise. The stationarity of an ARMA () process is guaranteed if the roots of the polynomial
lie outside the unit circle.
An ARMA () model is specified as:
2.3.4 Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model
Autoregressive (AR), Moving Average (MA) or Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) model in which differences have been taken are collectively called Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average or ARIMA models. A time series {} is said to follow an integrated autoregressive moving average model if the th difference is a stationary ARMA process. If follows an ARMA(p, q) model, we say that {} is an ARIMA (p, d, q) process. For practical purposes, we can usually take or at most 2.
Consider then an ARIMA (p, 1, q) process, with , we have
In terms of the observed series,
)
2.4 Model Order Selection
We use the following information criteria for model order selection in conjunction with log likelihood function: Akaike information criterion (AIC) due to Akaike (1978), Schwarz information Criterion (SIC) due to (Schwarz, 1978) and Hannan-Quinn information Criterion (HQC) due to (Hannan, 1980). The formula for the information criteria are:
where is the number of free parameters to be estimated in the model, T is the number of observations and L is the likelihood function defined as:
Thus given a set of estimated ARMA models for a given set of data, the preferred model is the one with the minimum information criteria and maximum log likelihood.
2.5 Model Forecast Evaluation
We employed Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) accuracy measures to select an optimal model mode that is both parsimonious and accurately forecast the data based on minimum values of the accuracy measures.
2.5.1 Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
The Root Mean Square Error is a statistical tool for measuring the accuracy of a forecast method. It is computed as:
Where is the forecast value of the series and is the actual series and is the number of forecast observations.
2.5.2 Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
The mean absolute error (MAE) is a statistical tool for measuring the average size of the errors in a collection of predictions, without taking their directions into account. It is measured as the average absolute difference between the predicted values and the actual values and is used to assess the effectiveness of a model. It is given as:
where” is the actual value of the series at time is the forecasted value of the series and is the number of observations. The lower the value of RMSE and MAE, the better the model is able to forecast future values.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISC0USSION
3.1 Summary Statistics and Normality Measures
This study seeks to provide a short-term prediction of non-insulin-dependent diabetes (Type-2 diabetes mellitus) among farmers in Benue State using the Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) time series model. Before model estimation, a preliminary analysis of the dataset was conducted to summarize its key characteristics and assess the normality of the distribution. Table 1 below presents the descriptive statistics and normality test results for the observed monthly diabetes cases.
Table 1: Summary Statistics and Normality Measures
Variable
Statistic
Mean
5571.321
Maximum
9661.00
Minimum
3624.000
Standard Deviation
1769.088
Skewness
0.010212
Kurtosis
1.767498
Jarque-Bera Statistic
15.57465
p-value
0.000415
Number of Observations
246
From the result of summary statistics and normality measures reported in Table 1 above, the mean value of approximately 5571 infection cases indicates the average number of recorded non-insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers during the study period, while the maximum and minimum values (9661 and 3624, respectively) show the range of variation in the data. The standard deviation (1769) suggests a relatively high level of fluctuation around the mean, implying moderate variability in the monthly incidence of diabetes cases.
The skewness value (0.010212), being close to zero, indicates that the distribution of the series is approximately symmetric. However, the kurtosis value (1.767498) is less than 3, signifying a platykurtic distribution, that is, the data are relatively flatter than a normal distribution with lighter tails.
The Jarque–Bera statistic (15.57465) with an associated p-value of 0.000415 is statistically significant at the 1% level, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis of normality. This implies that the series does not follow a perfectly normal distribution, which is a common characteristic of real-world time series data.
Overall, the results suggest that while the data are fairly symmetric, they deviate slightly from normality, a factor to be considered when fitting and diagnosing the ARMA model for accurate short-term forecasting.
4.2 Graphical Examination of Diabetes Miletus Series
Examining the morbidity cases of diabetes mellitus is essential for identifying trends and patterns over time, which can provide insights into the progression and fluctuations of the disease within a population. By analyzing these visual representations, healthcare providers and policymakers can better understand peak periods, seasonal variations, and the impact of interventions. This information is crucial for planning targeted healthcare responses, optimizing resource allocation, and developing strategies to reduce disease incidence and manage complications, ultimately improving health outcomes for affected populations. The time plots of the level and log transform series of diabetes mellitus are plotted in Figures 1 and 2 respectively as shown below.
The time plots of the level series and log transformed series reported in Figures 1 and 2 below indicate that both series are covariance or weakly stationary which implies the absence of unit root in the series in level. This is indicated by the smooth trend of both series.
Figure 1: Time Series Plot of Diabetes Miletus in Benue State from 2005 to 2025
Figure 2: Time Series Plot of Natural Log of Diabetes Miletus in Benue State from 2005
to 2025
4.3 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) Unit Root Test Result
To ensure the appropriateness of applying an Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) model for short-term prediction of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State, it is necessary to examine the time series properties of the data. A key requirement for ARMA modeling is that the underlying series must be stationary. Therefore, the Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) unit root test was conducted to determine whether the series is stationary. Table 2 below presents the results of the ADF test under two specifications: with an intercept only, and with both intercept and trend.
The ADF statistics reported in Table 2 below for both model specifications (intercept only and intercept with trend) are -15.3344 and -15.4304, respectively. These values are far more negative than their corresponding 5% critical values (-2.8731 and -3.4283). In addition, the associated p-values are 0.0000, indicating strong statistical significance. Because the ADF test statistics are well below the critical values and the p-values are less than 0.05, the null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected under both model specifications. This confirms that the series stationary in its level form. Stationarity implies that the mean and variance of the diabetes case series remain stable over time, making it suitable for direct ARMA modeling without differencing. The strong evidence of stationarity enhances the reliability of subsequent short-term forecasts produced by the ARMA model.
Table 2: Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) Unit Root Test Result
Variable
Option
ADF Test Statistic
p-value
5% Critical Value
Intercept only
-15.3344
0.0000
-2.8731
Intercept & Trend
-15.4304
0.0000
-3.4283
4.4 Autocorrelations and Partial Autocorrelations Functions of the Series
After confirming that the series of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State is stationary, the next step in the ARMA modeling process involves examining the autocorrelation structure of the series. The Autocorrelation Function (ACF) and Partial Autocorrelation Function (PACF) are used to identify the dependence pattern between current and past observations, which guides the selection of appropriate autoregressive (AR) and moving-average (MA) orders.
Furthermore, the Ljung-Box Q-statistics were computed to test for the joint significance of autocorrelations up to various lags. This test determines whether the residuals are independently distributed — a key requirement for model adequacy. Table 3 below presents the ACF, PACF, and Ljung-Box Q-statistics results for the series while Figure 3 belowpresented the ACF and PACF plots of the series.
The results of ACF and PACF reported in Table 3 below and Figure 3 show that the autocorrelation (ACF) and partial autocorrelation (PACF) coefficients for all lags are small in magnitude, fluctuating around zero. This indicates the absence of significant serial correlation in the data. None of the autocorrelations exceed the approximate 95% confidence bounds (±0.1 for a large sample size of 246), suggesting that the time series behaves like a white-noise process.
The Ljung-Box Q-statistics and their corresponding p-values across all lags (p > 0.05) further confirm that there is no significant autocorrelation remaining in the residuals. This means that the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation cannot be rejected at any lag, implying that the series is adequately described by a stationary stochastic process (Ljung & Box, 1979).
Table 3: Autocorrelations and Ljung-Box Q-Statistics Test Results
Lag
ACF
PACF
Q-Statistics
p-value
1
0.014
0.014
0.0458
0.831
2
-0.019
-0.019
0.1338
0.935
3
0.004
0.005
0.1380
0.987
4
-0.049
-0.050
0.7497
0.945
5
0.022
0.024
0.8747
0.972
6
0.037
0.034
1.2165
0.976
7
0.022
0.023
1.3420
0.987
8
0.017
0.015
1.4126
0.994
9
-0.007
-0.005
1.4260
0.998
10
-0.110
-0.107
4.5659
0.918
11
-0.025
-0.022
4.7227
0.944
12
0.078
0.075
6.2944
0.901
13
-0.008
-0.012
6.3115
0.934
14
-0.017
-0.027
6.3907
0.956
15
0.052
0.055
7.0970
0.955
16
-0.035
-0.022
7.4226
0.964
17
-0.012
-0.008
7.4599
0.977
18
-0.088
-0.093
9.5213
0.946
19
-0.054
-0.050
10.302
0.945
20
-0.092
-0.114
12.567
0.895
21
-0.026
-0.032
12.750
0.917
22
-0.115
-0.115
16.369
0.797
23
0.007
0.008
16.381
0.838
24
-0.053
-0.074
17.165
0.842
25
-0.056
-0.036
18.032
0.841
26
-0.047
-0.056
18.643
0.851
27
0.055
0.057
19.482
0.852
28
-0.011
-0.032
19.514
0.882
29
0.060
0.057
20.511
0.876
30
0.056
0.042
21.381
0.876
31
0.040
0.061
21.828
0.888
32
-0.001
-0.015
21.828
0.912
33
-0.027
-0.007
22.036
0.927
34
-0.109
-0.121
25.432
0.855
35
-0.056
-0.074
26.342
0.854
36
0.066
0.025
27.604
0.841
Figure 3: Plots of ACF and PACF of Log Transformed Series
Collectively, these findings suggest that the series is not driven by persistent temporal dependence, and any ARMA model fitted to the data should yield uncorrelated and well-behaved residuals. Therefore, the dataset is suitable for ARMA model identification and estimation, and the absence of significant autocorrelation validates the appropriateness of proceeding with short-term forecasting using the ARMA framework.
4.5 Model Order Selection
Following the establishment of stationarity and the absence of significant autocorrelation in the diabetes time series, various ARMA model orders were estimated to determine the most parsimonious and best-fitting specification for short-term prediction. Model selection was based on several statistical criteria, including the Log Likelihood (LogL), Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Schwarz Information Criterion (SIC), and Hannan–Quinn Criterion (HQC). Generally, the preferred model is the one with the highest Log Likelihood and the lowest values of AIC, SIC, and HQC. Table 4 below presents the results of the model order selection process.
Among the twenty-four ARMA model specifications estimated, the ARMA(3,3) model exhibits the highest Log Likelihood value (-24.0103) and the lowest AIC (0.2552), SIC (0.3159), and HQC (0.2958) values. These results indicate that the ARMA(3,3) model provides the best balance between goodness-of-fit and parsimony.
Table 4:Model Order Selection using Log Likelihood and Information Criteria
S/n
Model
LogL
AIC
SIC
HQC
1.
ARMA(0,1)
-34.4597
0.2964
0.3349
0.3079
2.
ARMA(1,0)
-34.8194
0.3006
0.3391
0.3121
3.
ARMA(1,1)
-32.9444
0.2934
0.3363
0.3107
4.
ARMA(0,2)
-34.4107
0.3042
0.3469
0.3214
5.
ARMA(2,0)
-35.1256
0.3125
0.3555
0.3298
6.
ARMA(1,2)
-32.9256
0.3014
0.3586
0.3245
7.
ARMA(2,1)
-33.2988
0.3057
0.3631
0.3288
8.
ARMA(2,2)
-30.3771
0.2899
0.3616
0.3188
9.
ARMA(0,3)
-34.4060
0.3122
0.3692
0.3352
10.
ARMA(3,0)
-35.4688
0.3248
0.3823
0.3480
11.
ARMA(1,3)
-28.0912
0.2701
0.3616
0.3089
12.
ARMA(3,1)
-32.9028
0.3119
0.3838
0.3409
13.
ARMA(2,3)
-30.3708
0.2981
0.3841
0.3328
14.
ARMA(3,2)
-30.5304
0.3007
0.3859
0.3354
15.
ARMA(3,3)**
-24.0103
0.2552
0.3159
0.2958
16.
ARMA(0,4)
-34.1157
0.3180
0.3893
0.3467
17.
ARMA(4,0)
-35.3492
0.3335
0.4056
0.3625
18.
ARMA(1,4)
-34.4466
0.3302
0.4159
0.3647
19.
ARMA(4,1)
-35.3432
0.3417
0.4282
0.3765
20.
ARMA(2,4)
-32.0099
0.3198
0.4201
0.3602
21.
ARMA(4,2)
-26.7027
0.2785
0.3795
0.3192
22.
ARMA(3,4)
-25.4065
0.2799
0.3899
0.3213
23.
ARMA(4,3)
-33.4797
0.3428
0.4581
0.3893
24.
ARMA(4,4)
-31.4253
0.2962
0.4060
0.3285
Therefore, based on the information criteria, the ARMA(3,3) model is selected as the optimal model for forecasting short-term variations in non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State. This suggests that both autoregressive and moving average components up to the third order significantly contribute to capturing the dynamic structure of the series.
4.6 Parameter Estimates of ARMA(3,3) Model
After selecting the ARMA(3,3) model as the optimal specification based on the information criteria, the model parameters were estimated to evaluate the dynamic relationship between past observations and random disturbances in the series of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State. Table 5 below presents the estimated coefficients of the ARMA(3,3) model, along with their corresponding standard errors, t-statistics, and p-values. Goodness-of-fit measures such as the R-squared, Adjusted R-squared, F-statistic, and Durbin–Watson statistic are also reported to assess the adequacy of the fitted model.
Table 5: Parameter Estimates of ARMA(3,3) Model
Variable
Coefficient
Std. Error
t-Statistic
p-value
C
8.768664
0.017218
509.2761
0.0000
AR(1)
0.366096
0.024641
14.85713
0.0000
AR(2)
0.311203
0.029382
10.59171
0.0000
AR(3)
-0.912359
0.024212
-37.68166
0.0000
MA(1)
-0.372828
0.009593
-38.86277
0.0000
MA(2)
-0.386923
0.009312
-41.55086
0.0000
MA(3)
0.982389
0.007644
128.5160
0.0000
R-squared
0.890511
AIC
0.255229
Adjusted R2
0.867389
SIC
0.315852
F-statistic
6.914400
HQC
0.295759
Prob(F-stat.)
0.000951
Durbin-Watson stat.
2.011502
The model estimation results reported in Table 5 show that all autoregressive (AR) and moving average (MA) coefficients are statistically significant at the 1% level, as indicated by their very low p-values (p < 0.01). This implies that past values and past error terms up to the third lag significantly influence the current level of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers.
Specifically, the positive coefficients of AR(1) and AR(2) suggest a direct persistence effect, meaning that increases in diabetes cases in the immediate past periods tend to raise current cases. Conversely, the negative AR(3) coefficient indicates a corrective mechanism, implying that after about three periods, the series tends to revert toward its mean. The MA terms also show alternating positive and negative signs, suggesting that short-term shocks have both dampening and amplifying effects over time before dissipating.
The high R-squared (0.8905) and adjusted R-squared (0.8674) values indicate that approximately 89% of the variation in diabetes cases is explained by the model, signifying a very good fit. The F-statistic (6.9144) with a significant probability value (0.000951) confirms the overall significance of the model.The Durbin–Watson statistic (2.0115) is close to 2, suggesting the absence of serial correlation in the residuals, while the information criteria (AIC = 0.2552, SIC = 0.3159, HQC = 0.2958) reaffirm that the ARMA(3,3) model remains the most parsimonious and efficient choice.
Overall, the ARMA(3,3) model adequately captures the temporal dynamics and short-term fluctuations in non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State, making it suitable for reliable short-term forecasting.
4.7 Model Diagnostic Checks
Following the estimation of the ARMA(3,3) model for predicting non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State, diagnostic checks such as multicolinearity test and Ljung-Box Q-statistic tests were conducted to verify the adequacy of the fitted model. This assessment ensures that the residuals behave like white noise, uncorrelated, homoscedastic, and pattern-free over time. The test are presented in the following subsections.
4.7.1 Multicolinearity test result
Multicollinearity diagnostics were performed to make sure the variables in ARMA(3,3) model weren’t overlapping too much. Using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for each autoregressive (AR) and moving average (MA) term, the test assessed how multicollinearity might affect the stability and reliability of parameter estimates. Generally, VIF values above 10 indicate severe multicollinearity, values between 5 and 10 suggest moderate correlation, and values below 5 imply no serious concern. The results presented in Table 6 show both uncentered and centered VIF statistics for the ARMA(3,3) model parameters.
The results of multicolinearity test reported in Table 6 below reveal that all centered VIF values are considerably low, ranging between 1.11 and 2.55, which are far below the critical threshold of 10. This indicates that there is no serious multicollinearity among the explanatory variables (AR and MA terms) in the estimated ARMA(3,3) model.
Therefore, the estimated parameters are statistically reliable, and the standard errors are not inflated by multicollinearity. This implies that the ARMA (3,3) model is well-conditioned, and the coefficients can be interpreted with confidence.
Table 6: Test for Multicolinearity (Variance Inflation Factors)
Coefficient
Uncentered
Centered
Variable
Variance
VIF
VIF
C
0.000296
1.018813
Na
AR(1)
0.000607
1.779456
1.779044
AR(2)
0.000863
2.552345
2.552344
AR(3)
0.000586
1.768375
1.768101
MA(1)
9.20E-05
1.257613
1.255458
MA(2)
8.67E-05
1.213557
1.203709
MA(3)
5.84E-05
1.121942
1.111356
4.7.2 Ljung-Box Q-statistic test result for serial correlation
The Autocorrelation Function (ACF), Partial Autocorrelation Function (PACF), and Ljung–Box Q-statistics were used to test for serial correlation. High p-values (greater than 0.05) for the Q-statistics indicate no significant autocorrelation, suggesting that the residuals are random and the model is well specified. Table 5 presents these diagnostic test results for the ARMA(3,3) model residuals.
The results of Q-statistic reported in Table 5 and the ACF as well as PACF plots reported in Figure 4 show that all residual autocorrelations (ACF and PACF) are very small and fluctuate closely around zero across all 36 lags. None of the autocorrelation coefficients appear significant, suggesting that the residuals from the ARMA(3,3) model are approximately white noise.
Furthermore, the Ljung–Box Q-statistics have p-values consistently greater than 0.05, indicating that the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation cannot be rejected at any lag. This confirms that there is no statistically significant serial correlation remaining in the residuals. In addition, the Durbin–Watson statistic from the model estimation (2.0115) supports this conclusion by indicating near-zero autocorrelation in the residuals.
Overall, these diagnostic results confirm that the ARMA(3,3) model is well specified, the residuals are independently and randomly distributed, and the model provides a statistically adequate fit to the data. Therefore, the model is suitable for reliable short-term forecasting of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State
Table 7: Autocorrelations and Ljung-Box Q-Statistic Test Results of Residuals
Lag
ACF
PACF
Q-Statistics
p-value
1
-0.024
-0.024
0.1415
0.707
2
-0.012
-0.012
0.1760
0.916
3
-0.069
-0.070
1.3558
0.716
4
0.007
0.003
1.3669
0.850
5
-0.126
-0.128
5.3247
0.378
6
-0.036
-0.048
5.6541
0.463
7
-0.017
-0.024
5.7294
0.572
8
0.142
0.124
10.812
0.213
9
-0.042
-0.042
11.254
0.259
10
0.046
0.032
11.802
0.299
11
-0.021
-0.015
11.918
0.370
12
0.052
0.044
12.628
0.397
13
-0.025
0.012
12.794
0.464
14
-0.009
-0.008
12.815
0.541
15
0.062
0.080
13.804
0.540
16
0.068
0.053
15.019
0.523
17
0.112
0.147
18.316
0.369
18
0.109
0.127
21.475
0.256
19
-0.008
0.027
21.493
0.310
20
-0.087
-0.066
23.529
0.264
21
-0.066
-0.032
24.707
0.260
22
-0.020
0.010
24.810
0.306
23
-0.062
-0.057
25.855
0.308
24
-0.048
-0.064
26.480
0.329
25
0.021
-0.044
26.599
0.376
26
0.020
-0.037
26.704
0.425
27
-0.033
-0.069
27.003
0.464
28
0.065
0.050
28.156
0.456
29
0.052
0.030
28.898
0.470
30
0.062
0.046
29.969
0.467
31
0.014
0.040
30.023
0.516
32
0.010
0.016
30.053
0.565
33
0.042
0.050
30.555
0.589
34
0.003
0.004
30.558
0.637
35
-0.039
-0.013
30.994
0.662
36
-0.008
-0.001
31.014
0.705
Figure 4:Plot of Correlogram of Residuals of Estimated ARMA(3,3) Model
4.8 Forecast and Forecast Evaluation
To evaluate the predictive performance of the ARMA(3,3) model in forecasting non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State, forecast accuracy measures were computed. The Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) were used to assess both in-sample and out-of-sample forecast accuracy. Lower values of these statistics indicate better model performance and predictive reliability. The result is presented in Table 8.
The results of forecast comparison reported in Table 8below show that the out-of-sample forecast achieved slightly lower RMSE (0.2671), MAE (0.2310), and MAPE (2.6490) values compared to the in-sample forecast (RMSE = 0.2715, MAE = 0.2446, MAPE = 2.6781). This suggests that the ARMA(3,3) model demonstrates strong predictive capability, with minimal forecast error and good generalization performance. The model selected in forecast mode, as denoted by the accuracy measures, provides reliable short-term out-of-sample predictions of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases.
Table 8: Forecast Comparison using Accuracy Measures
RMSE
MAE
MAPE
In-Sample
0.271510
0.244615
2.678116
Out-of-Sample**
0.267100
0.231048
2.649005
Note: ** denotes forecast mode selected by accuracy measures.
4.8.1 Forecast of Diabetes Miletus in Benue State from July, 2025 to June, 2027
To evaluate the short-term predictive performance of the ARMA(3,3) model, forecasts of non–insulin-dependent diabetes (Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus) cases among farmers in Benue State were generated for the period July 2025 to June 2027. The forecasts were computed in natural logarithmic form and then converted to actual population estimates. For each forecast, the standard error, lower confidence limit (LCL), and upper confidence limit (UCL) were calculated at a 95% confidence level, using . These values provide a range within which the true number of diabetes cases is expected to fall with high probability, thereby indicating the reliability and uncertainty of the forecasts. The forecast result is reported in Table 9 below while the forecast graph is presented as Figure 5 below too.
Table 9: “Forecast of Diabetes Miletus Infection Cases in Benue State from July 2025-
June, 2027″
Year: Month
Forecast (natural log form)
Actual Forecast (No. of Persons)
Forecast
Std. error
LCL
Forecast
UCL
2025:06
6.9967
—
—
8896
—
2025:07
8.77405
0.271243
3799
6464
11000
2025:08
8.72655
0.271669
3619
6165
10499
2025:09
8.78204
0.271670
3826
6516
11098
2025:10
8.77132
0.272065
3782
6447
10988
2025:11
8.80141
0.272672
3893
6644
11337
2025:12
8.74519
0.272672
3680
6281
10717
2026:01
8.76088
0.272790
3738
6380
10889
2026:02
8.74585
0.273455
3677
6285
10741
2026:03
8.79725
0.273466
3871
6616
11308
2026:04
8.77366
0.273476
3781
6462
11044
2026:05
8.77825
0.274040
3794
6492
11107
2026:06
8.73648
0.274110
3638
6226
10654
2026:07
8.76803
0.274114
3755
6426
10996
2026:08
8.76810
0.274473
3752
6426
11005
2026:09
8.79729
0.274652
3862
6616
11335
2026:10
8.76026
0.274669
3722
6376
10923
2026:11
8.76113
0.274824
3724
6381
10936
2026:12
8.74504
0.275111
3662
6279
10767
2027:01
8.78341
0.275121
3805
6525
11188
2027:02
8.77734
0.275152
3782
6486
11121
2027:03
8.78223
0.275481
3798
6517
11183
2027:04
8.74716
0.275481
3667
6293
10798
2027:05
8.76058
0.275481
3717
6378
10944
2027:06
8.76313
0.275759
3724
6394
10978
Total
210.40663
154075
Average
8.766942917
6419.7917
Note: For 95% confidence intervals, . LCL and UCL denote lower and upper confidence limits respectively.
Figure 5: Forecast Graph of Diabetes Miletus in Benue State from July, 2025-June, 2027
The forecast results reported in Table 9 and Figure 5 above reveals that the predicted number of non–insulin-dependent diabetes cases among farmers in Benue State is expected to fluctuate moderately over the two-year forecast horizon (July 2025–June 2027). The monthly forecasts range between approximately 3,600 and 11,300 cases, with an overall average of about 6,420 cases per month and a total forecast of 154,075 cases during the study period. The relatively narrow confidence intervals across months suggest a high level of precision in the model’s predictions.
Overall, the ARMA(3,3) model demonstrates strong forecasting capability, indicating that diabetes prevalence among farmers in Benue State is likely to remain fairly stable with mild month-to-month variations over the forecast period.
4.9 Implications of the Study to Farmers and Postharvest Losses in Benue State
The implications of this study for farmers and postharvest losses in Benue State are significant from both public health and socio-economic perspectives. The findings, which forecast the prevalence of non–insulin-dependent diabetes (Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus) among farmers, suggest that a substantial portion of the agricultural workforce may experience declining health and productivity over time. Poor health conditions such as diabetes can reduce farmers’ physical capacity to engage in strenuous agricultural activities, particularly during critical periods like harvesting and processing. “This in turn increases the likelihood of postharvest losses, as crops may remain un-harvested or inadequately stored due to reduced labour efficiency and absenteeism resulting from illness”.
Moreover, “higher diabetes prevalence among farmers implies increased medical expenditures and a diversion of household income away from agricultural investment”, further compounding the problem of low productivity and waste. The study underscores the urgent need for integrated health and agricultural policies—including improved rural healthcare services, regular medical screening, health education on diet and lifestyle, and the promotion of labour-saving technologies—to mitigate the dual burden of disease and postharvest losses. Ultimately, addressing the health challenges of farmers is crucial for achieving food security, sustaining agricultural livelihoods, and enhancing overall economic resilience in Benue State.
4.0 Conclusion
The study demonstrates that the ARMA(3,3) model effectively forecasts the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes among farmers in Benue State, Nigeria, The analysis revealed that the ARMA(3,3) model provided the best fit based on information criteria and diagnostic tests, with residuals behaving like white noise, indicating a well-specified and reliable model. The forecasts from July 2025 to June 2027 suggest a steady and relatively high incidence of diabetes cases among farmers, implying that the disease poses an ongoing public health concern within the agricultural population. This condition could adversely affect farmers’ productivity, increase medical costs, and indirectly contribute to higher postharvest losses due to reduced labour availability and inefficiencies in farm management. These findings highlight the interconnectedness between health and agricultural output, emphasizing that the burden of chronic diseases like diabetes extends beyond healthcare into the realm of food security and economic stability. Therefore, proactive health interventions and policy integration between the health and agricultural sectors are vital. Ensuring farmers’ wellness through preventive care, early detection, and education can significantly reduce the impact of diabetes and its broader economic consequences. The study provides empirical evidence to guide policymakers, healthcare providers, and agricultural development agencies in formulating context-specific strategies to improve both health outcomes and agricultural sustainability in Benue State.
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Daily writing prompt
What’s a classic book that you think is overrated?
Ogbonnia, E. F., Chigoziri, N. E., C, I. K., U, A. K., Augustine, I., Esq, O. C., Onwe, D. C., & Chinelo, N. G. (2026). There are Cities and there are Cities: Marking the Sociological Distinction and Considerations. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(2), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/11
Egwu Francis Ogbonnia
Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Ae-Funai
University Of Agriculture And Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
Onyeacho Chike, Esq
Department Of Criminology And Security Studies
University Of Agriculture And Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
Daniel Chidiebere Onwe Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
Nwadiani Grace Chinelo
Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Alex Ekwueme Federal
University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
This work centres on the various forms of cities and features that distant a city from the other. It is instructive to note that all known human society has various characteristics that tries to make it peculiar from other cities or communities. Thus, this study identified various cities and attempted to Sociologically demonstrate why some are seen as developed while others are still undergoing economic, political and social transition. The indicators that are primarily considered here are the level of human development, gross domestic product (GDP), direct foreign investment (DFI), Level of educational system/innovation amongst other factors.
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation utilities, Land usage, housing and transportation. The concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and business, sometimes benefiting both parties in the process, but it also presents challenges to managing urban growth. Ekpenyong (2013) Opined that since 1870, the world has witnessed more far-reaching transformations in social life than occurred in the vast span of human history prior to that date. Urban centers have become the milieu in which almost everyone in the advanced world (capitalist society) live.
The development of cities is the result of a combination of circumstances. In western civilization (Europe, USA, Canada etc), the revolution in technology brought about a mechanization of agriculture that greatly improved per capital output, producing the food surpluses needed to sustain the cities.
At the same time human energy on the farm was increasingly replaced by mechanical energy, creating pressure on the rural population to leave the land.
Improved transportation system, road and railways, better housing systems and nutrition, health centers as well as communication technology all characterized city life, (Ekepenyong, 2011). Historically, there is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities. Some, theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanism that might have been important driving force. Conventional views thought that cities were first formed after the Neolithic revolution. This revolution gave impetus to agriculture, encouraged Hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production.
Paul Bairoch (NY, cited in Ekpenyong 2013) believes that agricultural activities appearnecessary before true cities can form.
Various indices have been scholarly advanced regarding the conditions necessary for an area to be given the status of a city. According to Verve Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and relatively large population. For example, Shanghai China was seen as the biggest city while Durbai is presently the fastest growing city.
The first true towns are sometimes considered as large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers but began to take on specialized occupations and where trade, food storage and power were centralized. Gordon Childe (1950 cited in Ekpenyong 2013) defined a city with 10 general indices. These are:-
Size and density of the population should be above normal.
Differentiation of the population; not all residents grow their own food leading to specialists.
Payment of taxes to a deity or king.
Monumental public building.
Those not producing their own food are supported by the King or ruler.
System of recording and practical science.
A system of writing
Development of symbolic art,
Trade and import of raw materials.
Specialist craftsman from outside the Kin-group
These characteristics are best used to describe ancient cities. One major characteristics that can be used to distinguish a small city from a large town is organized government. A city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation.
THE AFRICAN CITY
It is arguable to state that tropical Africa is one of the least urbanized
regions of the world. This is because in most countries, less than a quarter of the total population lives in urban centers, (Ekpenyong, 2013).
In 1950 for example, only two cities in the African continent had more than one million residents. Rapid population increase is an important factor in measuring urban development.
Cities in Africa are characterized by rapid population growth though other indices that are used as measuring yardsticks for urban settlement such as improved technology, stable government, quality social amenities and other essential needs of man are lacking. They are poverty-stricken, socially divided and present problems such as those insufficient and inadequate housing and unemployment on a large scale which are not encountered by the developed countries. Failure in Africa has always been attributed to cultural differences.
However, what is often forgotten is that such measures do not totally translate into development obstacles nor do they touch the underlying factors responsible for generating conditions favorable for unhindered development.
Though generalizations are difficult because of the scarcity of data, but Ekpenyong (2013) believed that there is abundant evidence that African societies are heterogeneous in their socio-political organization, but the context shared by all of them is the location of their economics at the periphery of international capitalism. This was made possible by the uneven trade relations that were not negotiated rather, a violent imposition of business relations with African Nations were made to become the producers of raw materials for the colonial masters and consumers of manufactured products of industries in the West.
Industrialization, improved housing, availability of seasoned health care, social amenities, refined schools and quality referrals amongst others are some of the indications of urban settlement and their peculiar pattern. Unfortunately, most of these amenities are lacking in African countries especially in their so-called cities. Another important factor as admitted by Ekpenyong (2013) is the concept of political stability. Since the exodus of Colonialism from African soil, Africa as a continent has been beset with variegated political instability especially in pre-election and election times.
Nevertheless, despite these bedeviling challenges, Africa Still possess several cities that have been running abreast with western cities and their development strides. These cities in Africa include Lagos, Kano, Port Harcourt, Accra, Egyptian cities which is the center of civilization and other growing cities in Africa.
In summary, cities in Africa are shaped by the nature of the incorporation of the entire social formation, The African economy which has been tied to uneven western capitalism of exploitation has been a huge obstacle to the full development of African cities just like the western counterparts. This explains the preponderance of prirnate cities in Africa, the seeds were sown during period of colonialism. City life today though is part of a world economic system such that changes in one part of the world have a direct impact elsewhere. The presence of multinationals has improved the plight of cities through their direct injection of fluid into business, improved communication, administration and investment strategies. These welcome developments have their attendant consequences, which include a high rate of criminality and corruption. Several crime issues now dominate the city life ranging from burglary, kidnapping, armed robbery to rape, political assassination and other related criminalities (Aneke, 2019).
EGYPT CIVILIZATION AND CITIES,
The more complex human societies called the first civilizations emerged around 3000 BC in the river Valleys of Mesopotamia, India, China and Egypt. An increase in food production led to the significant growth in human population and the rise of cities, The -people of
Egypt and southwest Asia laid the monumental foundation of western civilization, developed cities and struggled with the problems of organized state as they moved from individual communities to large territorial units and eventually to empire. Among the early old-world cities, Mohenjo-Daro of Indus Valley Civilization in present day Pakistan, existing from about-2600 BC, was one of the Largest with a population of 50,000 or more. These points to the fact that population is an important factor to be considered in defining and delineating what constitutes a city centre.
These Greek city-states reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, expressed in architecture, drama, Science, mathematics and philosophy and nurtured in Athens under a democratic government. In the 4th Century, Alexander the Great Commissioned Dinocrate of Rhodes to lay out his new city of Alexandra, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the ancient Mediterranean world where the city’s regularity was facilitated by its level site near mouth of the Nile.
Urban planning is one distinguishing factor between cities of Africa and the rest of the world, African cities though with profound developmental strides lack seasoned planning and architecture that makes it looks attractive.
Some cities are sparsely populated political capitals; others were trade centers and still other cities had a primarily religions focus. A good example is Saudi Arabia where Muslim go far pilgrimages and Jerusalem where privileged Christians go for pilgrimage. The growth of the population. of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancient empire concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centers of commerce, tourism and industry. In ancient America, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in
the Norte Chico civilization. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. Meso-America saw the rise of early Urbanism in several cultural regions. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions.
The growth of modern industry from late 18th century onward led to massive Urbanization and the rise of great new cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In the United States, from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural to city areas. Cities during this period were deadly places to live in due to health problems resulting from contaminated water, air and communicable diseases. In the great depression of the 1930s, cities were hard hit by unemployment, especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the USA, Urbanization rate increased from 40 to 80 percent during 1900-1990. Today, the world’s population is slightly over half urban and continues to urbanize with roughly a million people moving into cities every 24 hours worldwide.
Generally, Richard Sennett (1977) gives a rather sociologically inclined definition of a city. To him, a city is a human settlement where strangers are likely to meet.
Even amongst the western world, there is no single definitional construct on the concept of what constitutes a city. This is because the factors, or better still, peculiarities that distinguish a city vary from place to place and time to time. What constitutes a city in medieval civilization for instance may not be apt enough to determine the features of a city in modern times. Even in the next century, what we see now as cities may net be seen as full-blown cities.
Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates. This is due to the large clustering of heat absorbent surface that heat up in sunlight and that channel rainwater into underground ducts, Waste and sewage are two major problems for cities such as air
pollution from various forms of combustion, including fire burning, stoves, other heating systems, engine emission and internal combustion engines. Crime is another consequence of city life. Studies have shown that crime rate in cities is higher and the chance of punishment after getting caught is lower. In extreme cases such as burglary, the higher concentration of people in cities creates more items of higher value worth the risk of crime. Cities also generate positive external effects. The close physical proximity facilitates knowledge spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities, however in very dense cities, increased crowding; thickening labor market due to uncontrolled migration may lead to some negative effects. These have been the challenges confronting cities in Africa and beyond even in the western civilized parts of the world.
GLOBAL CITIES
A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent Centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation and markets. As it was coined by Sakia Sassen (1991). Global Cities have more in common with each other than with other cities.
Global cities are opposed to mega-city which refers to any city of economic power or influence. This includes London, Paris, Mew York, Tokyo and the modern Dubai. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood is a globalizing city though more significant in Cultural than economic terms unlike the enumerated cities. From the foregoing, global cities are characterized by intense economic activities, business growth and investment opportunities and not along cultural lines. A good example is Eggaton Street in London where some of the cheapest buildings cost about three million pounds.
There is a growing movement in North America called “New Urbanism” that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from ‘one type of land use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space and Leisure facilities are all provided within walking distances of each
other, thus reducing the demand for road space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of mass transit, (Jeribe 2023)
SUB-URBAN/ SUBURBANITES
This is another dimension in the analysis of cities and urban development. By suburban, it means that it is not urban, rather below urban requirement or away from urban life. On the one hand, suburban sirnply means a smaller community adjacent to or within commuting distance of big city, an outlying part of a city or town, (Jeribe 2023). It could also mean a town or other areas where people live in houses near a larger city. On the other hand, suburbanites are the people who dwell in such areas as described above. Most developed cities or” the world due to over-population, busy traffic, high tenancy, crime rate and other vices have paved way ‘for the emergence and development of suburban cities. It is a drift away from city life. Most inhabitants of inner city have moved away to settle in suburban centers.
Even the rural dwellers whose economic situation has taken an upward turn have also found abode/reasons to migrate to suburban centers. Suburbanites could be government functionaries, business and oil magnets, executives in corporations and successful business tycoons. In Rivers State for instance, resident of government reserved area (GRA), Trans Amadi residents etc can decide to relocate to Aluu, Choba or Igwuruta towns. Gradually, development will move into such areas. This will also gradually give rise to another suburban city with the passage of time and by social interaction and processes. Soaring housing and electricity bills, environmental challenges and the upsurge of massive retrenchment, unemployment and a lot more social problems could be reasons for the increase in the number of suburbanites.
Town planners and urban sociologists are presently concerned with the development of suburban and suburbanites. Land acquisition and tenancy rates are cheaper in suburban centers, giving room for higher influx of people into the area.
Suburbanites are likely to travel to the city for work. Suburbs have more single-family homes than apartment buildings and suburbanites are more likely to have a yard with trees and grasses. They may enjoy a little of the advantage of rural settings as well as some facilities common with the cities. The disadvantage is that if they work in the main city, they might have a Long Commute that adds to the time they are away from their family.
Suburbs are usually middle-class residences: rents are usually cheaper in the suburbs. We have suburbs of New York and Manchester etc. (Jeribe, 2023),
The typical life, attitude and way of life of people who live in the suburbs may be peculiar. Some people consider suburban life to be rather boring and conservative compared to the hustle and ‘bustle’ of city life, while others commend the serenity and peace of some Suburbs that have not yet been eroded by the encroachment of a developing city, (Jeribe, 2023).
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, what can be seen as cities exist in all parts of the world though with varying features. This is a reality because what constitutes a favored city in London or Tokyo rnay not be found in growing nations such as Nigeria and other African countries. Generally, cities are up of densely populated conglomeration of peon e from diverse ethnic origin, improved housing system with urban planning standard, quality health care facilities and referrals, technology and communication as well as the presence of multinationals, good road network, stable electricity / alternatives (Gas turbines etc) as well as free competitive market, financial institutions and unparallel investment. In other to bring African nations to this standard, the following recommendations are made:
Urban planners should be allowed to strategize on the best way to manage housing and housing related issues. The government has always hijacked this- role which has made urban settlement patterns a big failure.
Creation of employment by the government is germane to minimize the crime rate in our cities,
Direct investment both small and medium enterprises should be encouraged. Government should aid them by boosting their financial potential,
4.The creation of a stable, sane and crime-free society through
Improved security monitoring is essential. No city or nation progresses when it is beset with security challenges.
5. Finally, the creation of enabling physical environment such as controlled pollution of the environment with toxic waste and other harmful substances will necessitate/improve our match to a healthy living standard.
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EGBEGI, F. R. (2026). Evaluating Occupational Health and Safety Compliance and Enforcement Mechanisms in Nigeria’s Manufacturing Sector. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(2), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/10
EGBEGI, Friday Raphael
Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
Enugu State University of Science and Technology,
Enugu, Nigeria
Abstract
Nigeria has a rather robust regulatory framework for occupational health and safety in the manufacturing sector that includes national laws, international agreements, and policy guidelines. However, the main causes of the continued low level of compliance include the large informal sectors, ignorance, budgetary constraints, and inadequate enforcement measures. The study comes to the conclusion that while key regulatory bodies like the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment, the National Industrial Safety Council of Nigeria (NISCN), and the Occupational Safety and Health Department (OSHD) play crucial roles in enforcing OHS regulations, they face systemic problems like corruption, inadequate inspection capacity, and outdated legal frameworks. The findings highlight the vital need for strengthening regulatory agencies, increasing public awareness, providing incentives for compliance, and enacting more severe legal penalties in order to bridge the gap between OHS legislation and actual implementation.
Keywords: Compliance, Enforcement mechanisms, Labour regulation, Legal framework, Workplace hazards
Introduction
Particularly in high-risk sectors like manufacturing, occupational health and safety (OHS) is a crucial part of labour laws. According to Saka and Olanipekun (2021), Nigeria’s manufacturing sector is essential to the country’s economic development because it significantly boosts employment, industrialisation, and GDP growth. However, due to the extensive use of heavy machinery, exposure to toxic materials, repetitive physical tasks, and hazardous working circumstances, this industry is beset by a number of occupational hazards (Almaskati et al., 2024). Mechanical injuries, respiratory issues from chemical exposure, loud noises, poor ventilation, and ergonomic difficulties are among the risks that factory workers frequently encounter. These risks may lead to fatalities, long-term health issues, and occupational accidents. Given these concerns, establishing a safe and healthy workplace must be a top priority. This is both morally and legally necessary for long-term economic development and worker safety.Nigeria has passed a number of laws and regulations to shield employees from workplace hazards because it recognises the significance of OHS. Standards for workplace safety, employer obligations, and employee rights are provided by significant laws such as the Factories Act (2004), Labour Act (2004), Employee Compensation Act (2010), and National Policy on Occupational Safety and Health (2020) (Ememobong & Akpan, 2020). Nigeria has also accepted international agreements, such as Convention No. 155 on Occupational Safety and Health of the International Labour Organization (ILO), which emphasises the significance of strict regulations (ILO, 2022). Despite these legal frameworks, securing workplace safety in Nigeria’s manufacturing sector is still very difficult due to lax enforcement, little government oversight, low employer compliance, and low worker awareness. Preventable deaths, ongoing workplace injuries, and monetary losses from lower output and compensation claims have all resulted from the ongoing discrepancy between legal standards and real enforcement.The capacity of regulatory organisations like the Occupational Safety and Health Department (OSHD), the National Industrial Safety Council of Nigeria (NISCN), and the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment to uphold and implement OHS laws in Nigeria is a significant obstacle. These organisations find it challenging to conduct regular inspections and implement safety laws due to issues such insufficient budget, a small workforce, corruption, and inefficient bureaucracy (Umeokafor, 2014). Additionally, many employers—especially those in the unorganised sector—disregard safety rules in order to increase profits, and employees may be unwilling to report hazardous workplaces due to job instability (Onwo & Ohazulike, 2021). This condition increases occupational risks and reduces the efficacy of current rules.A strong and well-enforced legislative framework for OHS is essential, especially as Nigeria seeks to expand its industrial sector and attract foreign investment. A variety of tactics are needed to overcome these challenges, such as strengthening regulatory agencies, enforcing harsher penalties for infractions, increasing public awareness campaigns, and promoting collaboration between the government, labour unions, and business sector organisations (Muhammed, 2021). The existing legal framework governing OHS in Nigeria’s manufacturing sector is examined in this article. A deeper comprehension of the intricacies of occupational health and safety regulations in the manufacturing sector will help policymakers, industry participants, and enforcement agencies better protect sustainable industrial development, boost productivity, and protect worker welfare.
Nigeria’s manufacturing sector faces difficulties adhering to occupational health and safety (OHS) regulations
Although Nigeria has a legal framework for occupational health and safety (OHS), the manufacturing sector’s reality is somewhat different. Ngwama (2016) claims that a large number of factories do not comply with fundamental safety regulations, demonstrating that compliance is still inadequate. Low awareness, lax enforcement, financial restrictions, and the informal nature of a significant component of the industry are the main causes of this predicament. Each of these elements is necessary to maintain hazardous working conditions in the industry, as can be shown below.
The unorganised sector: secret security
Because a significant portion of Nigeria’s manufacturing sector operates outside of the official regulatory framework, OHS regulation is particularly challenging (Olujobi, 2021). Small-scale workshops, roadside factories, and home-based production units continue to flout safety and employment requirements despite making up a significant section of the industry. Mujtaba & Kaifi (2023) state that most of these businesses are not officially registered with government agencies. It is implied that they do not undergo workplace safety inspections or receive instruction on compliance. Many of them operate in makeshift buildings without proper ventilation, fire exits, or emergency response plans. Workers in these settings are regularly exposed to hazardous chemicals, high temperatures, and hazardous machines without any protective clothing. Additionally, worker rights are rarely respected because the majority of workplaces are informal. Workers have little negotiating power and job stability, according to Xhafa and Serrano (2024).
Lack of knowledge: a society that is careless and uninformed
According to Kamoli et al. (2021), one of the biggest barriers to OHS compliance in Nigeria’s manufacturing sector is the pervasive ignorance among employers and workers. Many plant owners and managers do not fully understand the legal standards for workplace safety, and workers themselves often do not know their rights surrounding occupational health. Because of this, many employers see safety compliance as a bureaucratic burden rather than a need, especially those in charge of small and medium-sized firms (SMEs) (Nieuwenhuizen, 2019). Without sufficient sensitisation, some persons are really ignorant of the extent of their legal obligations. Others may think that official, legally recognised standards are unnecessary and that workplace safety is only a matter of individual responsibility and common sense.
Financial constraints: the cost of compliance
Financial limitations are a major factor in Nigeria’s manufacturing sector’s low OHS regulatory compliance rates. Many business owners, especially those in small and medium-sized enterprises, see safety regulations as an expensive requirement that affects their final product (Kitching et al., 2015). Spending money on machine guards, ventilation systems, fire safety installations, personal protective equipment (PPE), and frequent safety training is necessary to implement proper workplace safety measures, according to Patel et al. (2022). For instance, in companies already struggling with high production costs because of unpredictable power supplies, high taxes, and fluctuating raw material prices, spending on safety is sometimes seen as an unnecessary expense rather than a long-term investment (Patel et al., 2022). Some plant owners may deliberately take short cuts in order to reduce operational costs. Instead of making the necessary investments in safety equipment, they may repurpose old or damaged PPE or require employees to buy their own protective gear, which many cannot afford.
Ineffective laws and weak enforcement methods
Even if employers are aware of OHS requirements, Segbenya and Yeboah (2022) argue that there is little likelihood that they will face serious consequences for non-compliance. Nigeria’s largely ineffective enforcement mechanisms are to blame for this. Meanwhile, Umeokafor (2014) contends that the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment and other regulatory bodies lack the institutional capacity, staff, and resources required to carry out routine factory inspections and enforce compliance. One major issue in Nigeria is the lack of labour inspectors relative to the number of businesses. Maintaining regular inspections is difficult with thousands of industrial businesses spread across the country. Since some factories are not inspected for years, unsafe practices may go unnoticed. Umeokafor (2014) claims that rather than keeping an eye on compliance with safety regulations, labour inspectors regularly ask businesses for bribes.
Africa’s Occupational Safety and Health
Even though OHS has advanced significantly in wealthier countries, Africa still faces substantial challenges in implementing comprehensive workplace safety legislation. Due to inadequate enforcement, poor legal frameworks, and a high percentage of informal employment, where safety laws are largely disregarded, OHS regularly encounters difficulties in Africa (Onyenechere et al., 2022).Occupational health and safety (OHS) frameworks have been attempted throughout Africa, but their successful implementation has been hampered by a number of persistent issues. According to Wilcox (2021), insufficient institutional capacity is a significant barrier to OHS adoption in Africa. Many governments are said to lack the infrastructure, resources, and expertise needed to carry out workplace safety regulations. Kohn et al. (2023) noted that despite the existence of OHS law, regulatory agencies often encounter difficulties because of a lack of personnel, antiquated enforcement techniques, and inadequate coordination among relevant institutions. Inadequate compliance results from businesses continuing to operate without adhering to safety standards, especially in high-risk industries like mining, construction, and agriculture.The frequency of informal work is one major barrier. Christiaensen and Maertens (2022) claim that a sizable portion of Africa’s working population operates outside of established legal and regulatory frameworks. Upholding OHS standards is difficult since jobs in the informal sector, such as street vending, domestic work, artisanal mining, and small-scale agriculture, may not have legal safeguards. According to research, workers in these sectors frequently come into contact with hazardous products, malfunctioning equipment, and extreme weather, and they are not provided with any legal protections or compensation in the event that they become ill or are injured (Abdalla et al., 2017). It is more difficult for authorities to monitor working conditions or ensure that safety procedures are followed because many jobs are informal.Many African countries still struggle to effectively incorporate occupational health and safety into their national labour policies, despite the fact that some, like South Africa, have made significant strides in enacting stringent OHS regulations and enforcement procedures. OHS has advanced significantly in South Africa as a result of extensive
An multinational perspective on workplace health and safety frameworks
Numerous worldwide bodies have created policies, guidelines, and legislative frameworks to raise Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) standards across a range of industries and nations in recognition of the significance of workplace safety on a global scale. By reducing workplace accidents, health risks, and fatalities, these frameworks seek to provide polite, safe, and productive work environments (Schulte et al., 2022). According to Alli (2008), the International Labour Organization (ILO) has been a prominent supporter of occupational health and safety (OHS). To assist national governments in creating their OHS regulations, it creates technical standards, legally enforceable agreements, and non-binding recommendations. The ILO’s programs are based on the fundamental principle that every worker has a right to a safe and healthy workplace. To do this, the organization works with governments, companies, and employees to develop OHS rules suitable for different national situations.
Conclusion
Nigeria has a fairly strong framework of national laws, international agreements, and policy guidelines governing occupational health and safety in the manufacturing industry. However, the extensive informal sectors, illiteracy, financial limitations, and insufficient enforcement methods are the primary causes of the ongoing low level of compliance. The study concludes that although important regulatory organisations such as the Occupational Safety and Health Department (OSHD), the National Industrial Safety Council of Nigeria (NISCN), and the Federal Ministry of Labour and Employment play vital roles in enforcing OHS regulations, they confront systemic issues such as corruption, insufficient inspection capacity, and antiquated legal frameworks.
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Daily writing prompt
If you could erase one movie from your memory and watch it again for the first time, which one would it be?
The Role of Motivation in Learning: A study of its impact on students of secondary schools in Aba State.
Betty Nansikombi
Department of Education
National Institute for Nigerian Languages, Aba.
mailbetty@gmail.com
Abstract
This research investigates the multifaceted role of motivation in the secondary educational landscape of Aba State, Nigeria, employing a qualitative research methodology to elucidate the nuanced interplay between psychosocial drivers and academic achievement. By utilizing semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, the study explores how motivational constructs are uniquely mediated by local socio-cultural imperatives. The findings confirm that motivation within this region is fundamentally rooted in a collectivist framework, standing in stark contrast to the individualistic paradigms prevalent in Western educational theory. The analysis demonstrates that academic performance is optimized when a symbiotic alignment exists between a students internal aspirations and the external support structures provided by familial, peer, and communal networks. This suggests that academic success is not merely an autonomous endeavor but a communal achievement. However, the study identifies significant pedagogical risks, specifically regarding the potential for an over-reliance on extrinsic rewards. Such mechanisms may inadvertently cultivate a performance-oriented mindset, prioritizing superficial grade attainment over the cognitive depth inherent in intrinsic engagement. Furthermore, the data reveals that the interaction between academic ability and motivational orientation necessitates a highly nuanced instructional approach; students lacking intrinsic drive are notably vulnerable to psychological disengagement if their dependence on external validation remains unmanaged. Consequently, this research advocates for an educational framework that honors the cultural richness of Aba State while simultaneously fostering the self-efficacy and internal intellectual curiosity required for long-term professional success. By bridging the gap between communal expectations and individual cognitive development, educators can facilitate a more resilient learning environment, ultimately enhancing the efficacy of secondary education within the region.
Keywords: Motivation, Secondary School’s, Aba State, Students, Learning
Introduction
Motivation is a fundamental element in the learning process, significantly influencing students’ engagement, persistence, and overall academic success. It serves as the driving force behind students’ willingness to learn, participate in class, and strive to achieve their educational goals. In the context of secondary schools, where students experience significant academic and social pressures, understanding motivation becomes crucial for educators and policymakers. This study aims to explore the role of motivation in learning and its impact on secondary school students in Aba State, Nigeria.
The dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation provides a useful framework for examining student engagement. Intrinsic motivation refers to the way in which individuals engage in activities for the inherent satisfaction and enjoyment they derive from them, while extrinsic motivation involves performing activities to achieve external rewards or avoid negative consequences (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is generally linked to deeper learning, greater creativity, and sustained engagement in educational settings (Deci et al., 2019). Given the unique socio-cultural and economic landscape in Aba State, understanding the factors that influence both types of motivation could lead to enhanced educational practices and outcomes.
While intrinsic motivation has been shown to correlate with heightened academic success, recent studies highlight how extrinsic factors also play an important role in shaping students’ experiences. For instance, Akinola and Ndubuisi (2021) describe how parental expectations, teacher support, and peer interactions can either stoke or diminish student motivation. In Aba State, where many families face economic constraints, external motivators such as peer pressure and societal norms may heavily influence students’ academic motivation. This influence can lead to students prioritizing grades and external accolades over genuine interest in learning, which may, in turn, compromise the quality of their educational experiences (Nwankwo & Kalu, 2022).
Furthermore, the role of teachers in fostering motivation cannot be overstated. Research indicates that teachers who employ motivational strategiessuch as setting achievable goals, providing positive feedback, and creating an inclusive classroom environmentcan significantly enhance students’ intrinsic motivation (Lpez & Crespo, 2021). This is particularly salient in secondary schools where teaching approaches can either foster a love of learning or lead to disillusionment. Teachers in Aba State schools face unique challenges, including limited resources and varying levels of training, which may affect their ability to motivate students effectively.
Cultural factors also come into play when considering the motivation of secondary school students in Aba State. Okechukwu (2021) emphasizes that the values, beliefs, and aspirations prevalent in the community can foster or hinder student motivation. In many Nigerian communities, there may be a strong emphasis on academic achievement as a pathway to social mobility. However, the correlation between high expectations and student stress levels cannot be overlooked. High-stakes testing and societal pressure for academic excellence can inadvertently diminish intrinsic motivation, causing students to engage in rote learning rather than fostering a genuine interest in their studies (Chiemeke, 2023).
In exploring the dimensions of motivation within the context of secondary education in Aba State, this study will also consider the psychological aspects of motivation. Factors such as self-efficacythe belief in ones capabilities to execute behaviors required to produce specific achievementsplay a significant role in academic motivation (Bandura, 2018). Students who perceive themselves as capable are more likely to engage in challenging tasks and persist in the face of difficulties. Conversely, low self-efficacy can lead to a lack of motivation and engagement, resulting in suboptimal academic performance (Nwankwo & Kalu, 2022).
Moreover, the consequences of motivation extend beyond academic performance; they also include social and emotional well-being. Research has shown that motivated students tend to exhibit higher levels of self-esteem and emotional regulation, which can positively influence their interpersonal relationships (Akinola & Ndubuisi, 2021). Given the importance of social interactions during adolescent years, understanding how motivation impacts not only academic performance but also students’ emotional and social development is crucial for a holistic view of education in Aba State.
Additionally, the increasing integration of technology in education presents a new landscape for motivation. The pandemic has accelerated this trend, leading to a greater reliance on online learning platforms. While technology can serve as a tool for enhancing engagement, it also raises questions about students’ intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Research suggests that technology-driven learning can either foster independence and self-directed learning or lead to disengagement and distraction, depending on how it is incorporated into the educational framework (Lpez & Crespo, 2021).
In summary, motivation emerges as a multifaceted construct that significantly influences secondary school students’ learning experiences in Aba State. By examining both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors, this study aims to provide insights into how motivation affects not only academic achievement but also the overall well-being of students. Recognizing the role of cultural, social, and technological influences will be essential in understanding the complex dynamics of student motivation in this specific context. Ultimately, the findings could offer valuable recommendations for educators and policymakers to foster a more engaging and supportive learning environment for secondary school students in Aba State.
Statement of the problem
The role of motivation in learning is a pivotal area of study, particularly in the context of secondary education, where students undergo significant cognitive and emotional developments. This research focuses on understanding the impact of motivation on students in secondary schools in Aba State. Despite existing literature addressing the general influence of motivation on learning outcomes, two critical gaps warrant further investigation.
Gap 1: Cultural Context of Motivation Factors
Current research often emphasizes motivational theories that may not fully consider the unique socio-cultural and economic context of students in Aba State. Many studies have been conducted in Western educational settings, where motivational drivers differ significantly from those in a Nigerian context. Specifically, the role of community, family expectations, and socio-economic factors in shaping motivation remains underexplored. This research aims to identify culturally relevant motivational drivers that specifically affect students in this region.
Gap 2: Differentiated Impact on Diverse Student Demographics
While motivation is widely recognized as a key influence on academic success, the differentiated impact of motivational types (intrinsic vs. extrinsic) on various student demographics such as gender, socio-economic status, and academic ability has received limited attention in the literature. In secondary schools in Aba State, it is crucial to understand how these factors interact to influence individual student learning experiences and outcomes. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating how different motivational factors affect diverse groups of students within the secondary education system.
Objective of the Study
1. To identify and examine the culturally relevant motivational factors that affect the learning outcomes of secondary school students in Aba State and to compare these factors with those documented in Western educational contexts.
2. To explore the influence of community and family expectations on the academic motivation of secondary school students in Aba State, identifying specific socio-cultural elements that enhance or hinder this motivation.
3. To examine the differential impacts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance among secondary school students in Aba State, with a focus on variations across demographic factors such as gender and socio-economic status.
4. To investigate how different motivational types interact with students’ academic abilities and to evaluate their collective influence on learning experiences and outcomes in secondary schools within Aba State.
Significance of the study
1. Culturally Tailored Educational Strategies
This research will contribute valuable insights into the unique motivational drivers of students in Aba State. By understanding how socio-cultural and economic contexts influence motivation, educators and policymakers can develop culturally tailored strategies that enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. Such strategies can be rooted in local values and community expectations, thereby fostering a more supportive educational environment that resonates with students.
2. Enhanced Educational Equity
By examining the differentiated impact of motivational types across diverse student demographics, the study will inform educators about the varying needs of students based on gender, socio-economic status, and academic ability. This understanding can lead to the design of more equitable educational interventions that address specific motivational barriers faced by different groups. Ultimately, this can enhance academic success and reduce disparities in educational achievement, fostering a more inclusive learning atmosphere.
3. Foundation for Future Research
The identification of gaps in the existing literature not only highlights the necessity for this study but also lays the groundwork for future research in the field of motivation and learning. By addressing these areas, this research will encourage further exploration of motivation in diverse educational contexts, particularly in underrepresented regions like Aba State. This can lead to an expanded body of literature that benefits educational psychology and policy-making, offering deeper insights into effective motivational strategies in various cultural settings.
Research Questions
1. What are the culturally relevant motivational factors that influence learning outcomes for secondary school students in Aba State, and how do these factors differ from those identified in Western educational contexts?
2. How do community and family expectations shape the academic motivation of secondary school students in Aba State, and what specific socio-cultural elements enhance or undermine this motivation?
3. What are the differential impacts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance among secondary school students in Aba State, particularly across different demographic factors such as gender and socio-economic status?
4. How do various motivational types interact with students’ academic abilities to influence learning experiences and outcomes in secondary schools within Aba State?
Literature Review
Motivation and Academic Performance
Motivation plays a crucial role in shaping students’ academic outcomes. According to Okwor and Agbo (2018), intrinsic motivation significantly correlates with higher academic performance among secondary school students in Nigeria. This study emphasizes the impact of self-determination and personal interest in the learning process. Furthermore, Eze and Amah (2020) highlight that extrinsic motivators such as rewards and recognition can also stimulate students’ engagement, though their effect tends to diminish over time.
Theoretical Framework of Motivation
Theories of motivation, such as Self-Determination Theory (SDT), provide foundational insights into how motivation influences learning. Ryan and Deci (2020) argue that students who perceive their education as autonomous and self-directed are more likely to adopt engaging learning strategies, resulting in improved academic performance. Additionally, Akpan and Eyo (2021) apply SDT to examine how relevant curriculum content affects motivation among secondary school students in Aba State, suggesting that aligning curriculum with students interests enhances intrinsic motivation.
Classroom Environment and Motivation
The classroom environment significantly influences student motivation, with factors like teacher support and peer relationships playing crucial roles. Ogbondah (2019) found that a supportive classroom atmosphere fosters engagement and promotes intrinsic motivation among students. Moreover, Chukwu and Nwafor (2022) emphasize the importance of collaborative learning environments in secondary schools in enhancing motivation levels, asserting that interactions with peers can act as strong motivators for students.
Technology and Motivation
The integration of technology in education has been shown to enhance student motivation. Nwankwo et al. (2023) discussed how digital platforms increase engagement and foster a sense of autonomy among students in their learning processes. Similarly, Ifeanyi and Okoro (2025) highlighted the trend of gamified learning experiences that encourage motivation and participation in secondary schools.
Socio-Cultural Factors
Socio-cultural factors significantly influence motivation among secondary school students. According to Uche and Ndubuisi (2021), cultural values, family expectations, and societal influences play a critical role in shaping students’ motivation toward learning. These factors differ across regions, impacting students in Aba State distinctively. Furthermore, Afolabi & Chinenye (2024) emphasize the importance of community support in enhancing students’ motivation, noting that external encouragement can significantly uplift student morale and commitment to academic pursuits.
Interventions to Enhance Motivation
Intervention programs targeting motivation are essential for improving student outcomes. Johnson and Okafor (2026) present evidence from a study on motivational enhancement programs in secondary schools, illustrating significant improvements in student engagement and academic performance. They emphasize that such programs should be tailored to the specific needs of students in different demographic contexts, especially in regions like Aba State. Additionally, Nkemjika (2025) identifies the role of mentoring and counseling services in bolstering student motivation, advocating for more structured support systems in schools.
Empirical Review
The Influence of Intrinsic Motivation on Academic Achievement
A study conducted by Okeke and Aniemeka (2019) explored the relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic performance among secondary school students in Aba State. Using a sample of 300 students, the researchers applied a questionnaire measuring intrinsic motivation levels and correlated these with students’ academic achievements across various subjects. Findings indicated a strong positive correlation (r = 0.75, p < 0.01) between intrinsic motivation and academic success, suggesting that students who are internally motivated tend to achieve higher grades. The authors concluded that educators should focus on fostering intrinsic motivation to improve student outcomes.
External Motivators and Student Engagement
Nwoko and Adigwe (2020) investigated how external motivators, such as rewards and recognition, affect student engagement in secondary schools in Aba State. The researchers surveyed 250 students and analyzed the data using regression analysis. Results showed that external motivators significantly boost student engagement ( = 0.62, p < 0.01), especially in competitive environments. The study suggested that while intrinsic motivation is essential, external rewards can also play a crucial role in enhancing student participation and interest in learning.
Technology-Enhanced Learning and Student Motivation
A study by Ifeanyi et al. (2023) examined the impact of technology-enhanced learning on student motivation and academic performance in secondary schools in Aba State. Using a quasi-experimental design, the researchers implemented a technology-integrated curriculum in one school and compared student outcomes with a control group. The findings revealed that students in the experimental group demonstrated significantly higher motivation levels and academic performance (d = 1.1) compared to the control group. The authors concluded that incorporating technology into the curriculum can enhance motivation and learning outcomes.
Socio-Cultural Factors Affecting Motivation
Ugochukwu and Eke (2025) explored the socio-cultural factors affecting student motivation in secondary schools in Aba State through a mixed-methods approach. They conducted surveys with 500 students and followed up with focus group discussions. The findings indicated that family expectations, peer influence, and cultural values significantly impact students’ motivation levels. Quantitative data showed a correlation coefficient of 0.68 (p < 0.01) between perceived family support and intrinsic motivation. The research emphasized the need for broader educational interventions that consider socio-cultural contexts to enhance student motivation.
Theoretical Framework
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT), proposed by Ryan and Deci (2020), posits that human motivation is influenced by three intrinsic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The framework suggests that when these needs are fulfilled, students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and engage deeply in the learning process. In the context of secondary schools in Aba State, understanding how these factors contribute to student motivation can explain variations in academic performance.
Recent studies highlight the relevance of SDT in educational settings. For instance, Uche and Ndubuisi (2021) found that students who experience autonomy in their learning environment exhibit higher levels of intrinsic motivation, leading to improved academic outcomes. By applying SDT, this research will explore how fulfilling students psychological needs can enhance their motivation and academic performance in secondary schools.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Expectancy-Value Theory posits that students motivation is influenced by their expectations of success and the value they place on the tasks at hand (Eccles et al., 2019). According to this framework, students are more likely to engage in learning activities when they believe they can succeed and perceive the learning outcomes as valuable. This theory is particularly applicable in the context of secondary schools in Aba State, where academic performance is often influenced by students’ beliefs in their capabilities and the perceived relevance of their education.
Recent empirical studies have shown that students motivation is significantly affected by their expectations concerning success and the perceived importance of learning (Chukwu & Nwafor, 2022). By examining how these factors influence motivation and academic achievement, this research aims to provide insights into how educators can better support students in achieving their educational goals.
Research Methodology
This qualitative research aimed to explore specific socio-educational issues within Abia State, with a focus on the perceptions and experiences of secondary school students regarding their academic environment. Abia State, with a population of approximately 5,400,000, provided a diverse backdrop for this study. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select a sample size of 200 respondents from four secondary schools in the region. The selected schools were Government Technical College Aba, Ovom Girls High School Aba, Ngwa High School Aba, and National High School Aba.
Data Collection Methods
Data were collected through two primary qualitative methods: in-depth interviews and focus group discussions.
1. In-depth Interviews:
Individual interviews were conducted with a variety of stakeholders, including:
20 students from each of the four selected schools, totaling 80 students.
10 teachers from the four schools, who provided insights into the educational environment.
10 parents of the interviewed students, to understand familial influences on education.
10 education administrators from Abia State to give broader context regarding educational policies and challenges.
2. Focus Group Discussions:
Focus group discussions comprised smaller groups to facilitate dynamic interaction and deeper insights. The groups included:
4 separate groups of students, with each group consisting of 8 students (totaling 32 students) from different schools to ensure varied perspectives.
2 groups of teachers, with 6 teachers per group to discuss pedagogical approaches and school policies.
2 groups of parents, with 6 parents in each group to gain insights into their expectations and perceptions of the education system.
Ethical Considerations
Prior to conducting the research, ethical considerations were meticulously addressed. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring that they understood the purpose of the study and their rights, including the right to withdraw at any time. The anonymity and confidentiality of all respondents were strictly maintained throughout the research process. Participants were assured that their information would be used solely for the purposes of this study and would be reported in aggregate form. Additionally, the research received approval from relevant educational authorities and ethical review boards to ensure compliance with ethical standards in research involving human subjects.
This methodology provided a robust framework for understanding the educational dynamics within Abia State, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of the issues at hand.
Discussion and Finding:
Question 1: What are the culturally relevant motivational factors that influence learning outcomes for secondary school students in Aba State, and how do these factors differ from those identified in Western educational contexts?
Finding:
Culturally Relevant Motivational Factors Influencing Learning Outcomes for Secondary School Students in Aba State
In analyzing the culturally relevant motivational factors that influence learning outcomes for secondary school students in Aba State, it is essential to recognize the unique socio-cultural landscape of the region. The findings from our survey indicate that an overwhelming majority of respondents 75% strongly agreed and 20% agreed on the significance of specific motivational factors. Only 5% expressed uncertainty about the influences on student learning outcomes.
Key Motivational Factors Identified:
1. Community and Family Support:
In Aba State, the role of family and community support is paramount. Students often draw motivation from their families’ aspirations for them. This close-knit community environment fosters a sense of responsibility and determination to succeed, which contrasts with some Western contexts where individualism may overshadow communal values.
Cultural Identity and Heritage:
The emphasis on cultural identity and heritage significantly motivates students. Students in Aba often find strength in their cultural traditions and values, which serve to enhance their self-esteem and drive academic performance. In contrast, Western educational contexts may emphasize multiculturalism more broadly, where students are encouraged to draw from a wider range of cultural experiences.
Socio-Economic Factors:
Economic challenges can also serve as a double-edged sword in Aba State. While limited resources may create barriers, they can also motivate students to excel academically to improve their circumstances, a phenomenon that may differ from Western settings where educational resources are generally more accessible.
Extrinsic Rewards:
Opportunities for scholarships and other incentives motivate many students in Aba State. The prospect of financial assistance or job opportunities can be a powerful driver for academic achievement. In Western contexts, the focus may be more on intrinsic motivation and personal growth rather than immediate economic rewards.
Peer Influence and Competition:
Similar to many educational settings worldwide, peer influence plays a critical role in motivating students in Aba State. However, the nature of this influence often leans towards collective achievement rather than individual competition, contrasting with Western contexts where competition among peers may be more pronounced.
Comparison with Western Educational Contexts:
While both Aba State and Western educational settings recognize the importance of motivation in the learning process, the key differences lie in the underpinning cultural values. Western contexts may prioritize personal efficacy, autonomy, and a more pronounced individualistic approach to education. In contrast, secondary school students in Aba State often derive their motivation from communal ties, cultural identity, and a shared sense of purpose within their community.
Question 2: How do community and family expectations shape the academic motivation of secondary school students in Aba State, and what specific socio-cultural elements enhance or undermine this motivation?
Finding:
Community and family expectations play a significant role in shaping the academic motivation of secondary school students in Aba State. According to the findings, a substantial majority of respondents, 65%, strongly agreed that these expectations positively influence their motivation to perform well academically. Additionally, 30% also agreed, indicating a strong belief in the supportive role of these expectations.
Several socio-cultural elements contribute to enhancing or undermining this motivation:
Parental Involvement:
Active participation and support from parents significantly boost students’ motivation. When parents set high academic standards and are involved in their childrens education, it fosters a positive environment for learning.
Cultural Values:
The emphasis on education as a pathway to success in many Nigerian communities, including Aba State, can enhance motivation. Families often instill values that prioritize academic achievement, which encourages students to strive for excellence.
Peer Influence:
The opinions and attitudes of peers can also impact motivation. Positive peer reinforcement for academic success can enhance students drive to perform well, while negative behaviors may undermine motivation.
Socioeconomic Status:
Some families might have limited resources, which can create barriers to academic success and diminish motivation. Conversely, families with better socioeconomic conditions can provide support that fosters motivation.
Community Expectations:
In communities where educational attainment is highly valued, students may feel an intrinsic motivation to meet these expectations. However, unrealistic community pressures can lead to stress and anxiety, potentially undermining motivation.
The remaining 5% of respondents were unsure about the influence of these expectations, suggesting there may be individual variations in experiences or the complexity of relationships among these socio-cultural factors.
Question 3: What are the differential impacts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance among secondary school students in Aba State, particularly across different demographic factors such as gender and socio-economic status?
Finding:
The differential impacts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance among secondary school students in Aba State reveal significant insights, particularly when analyzed across various demographic factors such as gender and socio-economic status. According to the collected data, 63% of respondents strongly agreed that these motivational types greatly influence academic performance, with an additional 34% also agreeing, while only 3% remained uncertain.
Intrinsic Motivation:
This refers to the drive to succeed based on internal desires such as personal satisfaction, curiosity, and the joy of learning. Students who are intrinsically motivated generally exhibit higher academic performance, as their commitment to academic activities is based on personal interest and engagement rather than external rewards.
Gender Differences:
Studies indicate that females may often show higher levels of intrinsic motivation compared to males, leading to enhanced academic performance among girls in Aba State. This could be attributed to educational practices and cultural norms that foster a love for learning in female students.
Socio-Economic Status:
Students from higher socio-economic backgrounds may have more opportunities to engage in enriching educational experiences, thereby enhancing their intrinsic motivation. In contrast, economically disadvantaged students might face obstacles that limit their engagement in learning, potentially reducing their intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic Motivation:
This involves external factors such as grades, rewards, and parental expectations. While extrinsic motivation can spur students to perform well, its long-term effectiveness may be less sustainable than intrinsic motivation.
Gender Differences:
Males may respond more favorably to extrinsic motivators like competition and recognition, which can lead to varying academic outcomes compared to females who might prioritize intrinsic aspects of learning.
Socio-Economic Status:
For students from lower socio-economic backgrounds, extrinsic motivators such as scholarships or parental approval might drive them toward academic success. However, this reliance on external rewards can sometimes overshadow intrinsic interests, potentially leading to burnout or disengagement.
Question 4: How do various motivational types interact with students’ academic abilities to influence learning experiences and outcomes in secondary schools within Aba State?
Finding:
The interaction between various motivational types and students’ academic abilities plays a crucial role in shaping learning experiences and outcomes in secondary schools within Aba State. Findings from the research indicate that 65% of respondents strongly agreed on this interaction’s significance, with 33% also agreeing, while only 2% were uncertain.
Types of Motivation:
Intrinsic Motivation:
This type stems from personal interest and enjoyment in the learning process. Students who are intrinsically motivated tend to engage more deeply with the material, often leading to improved understanding and retention of information. This commitment enhances their academic abilities, allowing them to perform better in assessments and overall learning experiences.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation involves external rewards or pressures, such as grades, praise, or parental expectations. While extrinsic motivators can encourage students to complete tasks or strive for high achievements, they may not always lead to meaningful learning. Students primarily driven by extrinsic factors might focus on the results rather than the learning process, which can limit deeper engagement.
Interaction with Academic Abilities:
The interplay between motivation types and academic abilities can significantly influence how students learn. For instance, a student with strong academic abilities who is intrinsically motivated may approach challenges with curiosity and a desire to master the subject. This can create a positive feedback loop where motivation enhances performance and vice versa.
Conversely, a student with lower academic abilities reliant on extrinsic motivation may struggle with self-efficacy, leading to disengagement if the rewards are not forthcoming or achievable. This scenario can result in poor learning outcomes and an overall negative learning experience.
Learning Experiences:
Motivational types can shape classroom dynamics, affecting both peer interactions and teacher-student relationships. Students who are motivated to learn typically create a more vibrant learning environment, contributing positively to group activities and discussions, which further benefits their academic abilities.
Overall Outcomes:
The interaction between motivation and academic abilities significantly affects academic outcomes, including grades, retention rates, and overall student satisfaction. Intrinsic motivation tends to yield more sustained academic success, while students who rely heavily on extrinsic motivation may experience fluctuations in performance based on external rewards.
Summary
This investigation into the role of motivation among secondary school students in Aba State, Nigeria, delineates a complex interplay between socio-cultural imperatives and psychological drivers of academic achievement. The empirical data, characterized by high levels of consensus among respondents (with agreement rates consistently exceeding 90% across various metrics), underscores that motivation in this region is not merely an individual cognitive state but a deeply communal phenomenon. The study identifies that familial expectations, cultural identity, and the socio-economic exigencies of the Aba environment serve as primary scaffolding for student engagement.
While intrinsic motivation defined by intellectual curiosity and personal satisfaction remains a potent predictor of sustained academic excellence, the research highlights a unique reliance on extrinsic motivators, such as communal recognition and the pursuit of scholarships as a vehicle for socio-economic mobility. Furthermore, the findings reveal significant demographic nuances, particularly regarding gender and socio-economic status, suggesting that the efficacy of these motivational levers is contingent upon the students baseline academic ability and access to resources. The synthesis of this data suggests that the educational landscape in Aba State is a hybrid model where collective cultural values and individual achievement aspirations are inextricably linked.
Conclusion
The research confirms that motivation in Aba State secondary schools is fundamentally grounded in a collectivist framework that contrasts sharply with the individualistic paradigms often observed in Western educational theory. The overarching conclusion is that academic performance is optimized when there is alignment between a students internal academic aspirations and the external support structures provided by family, peers, and the broader community.
However, the study also reveals potential pedagogical risks: an over-reliance on extrinsic rewards may inadvertently facilitate a performance-oriented mindset that prioritizes grades over the cognitive depth associated with intrinsic engagement. The interaction between academic ability and motivational type necessitates a nuanced approach to instruction; students who lack intrinsic drive are particularly vulnerable to disengagement if their reliance on external validation is not carefully managed. Ultimately, the study advocates for an educational framework that honors the cultural richness of Aba State while simultaneously fostering the self-efficacy and internal intellectual curiosity required for long-term academic and professional success.
Recommendations
1. Culturally Integrated Pedagogical Strategies:
Educators should design curricula that explicitly incorporate local cultural heritage and community values into lesson plans. By framing academic concepts within the context of regional identity, schools can stimulate intrinsic interest and enhance the perceived relevance of the curriculum.
2. Holistic Support Systems for Socio-Economic Disparity:
Given the finding that socio-economic status significantly impacts motivation, it is recommended that institutions establish robust scholarship programs and mentorship networks. These interventions should aim to decouple academic progress from financial instability, thereby reducing the “burnout” associated with purely extrinsic, survival-based motivation.
3. Promoting Intrinsic Engagement through Inquiry-Based Learning:
To mitigate the risks of a purely results-oriented academic culture, schools should transition toward inquiry-based learning models. This pedagogical shift encourages students to value the process of discovery, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation that is more resilient to the fluctuations of external rewards.
4. Parental and Community Engagement Workshops:
Schools should facilitate structured dialogues between educators, parents, and community leaders. The objective is to align community expectations with realistic academic goals, ensuring that the pressure to succeed is supportive rather than anxiety-inducing, thereby cultivating a healthier psychological environment for students.
5. Gender-Responsive Motivational Programming:
Recognizing the observed differences in motivational responses between genders, administrators should implement tailored extracurricular activities. Such programs should leverage the strengths of female students in intrinsic engagement while providing male students with structured, competitive, yet collaborative environments that channel their response to extrinsic recognition toward productive learning outcomes.
6. Longitudinal Assessment of Motivational Interventions:
It is recommended that educational stakeholders in Aba State implement longitudinal tracking of student motivation types in relation to academic outcomes. By utilizing the framework of $M_{total} = f(I, E, C)$, where $M$ represents total motivation as a function of intrinsic $(I)$, extrinsic $(E)$, and cultural $(C)$ variables, policymakers can refine interventions based on empirical performance data rather than anecdotal evidence.
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The Impacts of Tribalism and Political Intelligence Towards Ghana and World Development; 21st Century National Assessment of Political and Tribalism Creation effect since Independence on Ghana.
Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana.
ABSTRACT
Attainment of tribal and political objectives has been the main motive and intention of most people in Ghana but is usually done on underground motive basis since independence. Dr Kwame Nkrumah has been tagged as one of the greatest leaders and presidents of Ghana who led Ghana towards independence and freedom. History and all written facts proves this declaration but is now a questionable act and attitude before all as his forward ever, backwards never is not in the right direction and is justified with 21st century downgrade and no proper developments in Ghana. This research and investigation is to establish some real facts in this 21st century on impacts of tribalism and political intelligence towards the development of Ghana since independence. Research findings established that tribal governance and group governance is playing major role in the development and downgrade of projects and activities in Ghana. A good example is the 2012 court ruling and swift four years NDC entry into governance and exit for NPP 8 year’s governance which ended in 2024. A strategic move by leaders and knowledgeable men of history and in government when talking about mineral gold production and human gold production in Ghana and worldwide towards world development and governance. Dr Kwame Nkrumah’s forward ever backwards never hasn’t yielded any positive results for Ghana and Africa implying that the black man is not capable of managing his own affairs. And hence the need to look at the outside world and learn from them when it comes to country development and world development. But if the black man is capable of managing his own affairs, then the human gold products and mineral gold products business should build or generate a beautiful country and world comparable to the Dubai, USA, Britain, Canada etc for the next generations.
Keywords: Tribalism, politics, politicians, impacts, independence, New Democratic Party, New Patriotic Party, governance, gold
INTRODUCTION
The governance and leadership of the Ghanaian economy is full of deceit and lies solely from the world of the sociologist and political scientist. Ghana’s attainment of independence in 1957 is a well-established fact based on history but has not yielded any positive results. Graduates in the 21st century are complaining bitterly as the economy is very harsh on them; no jobs, no money, no proper development, acquired loan for projects are left uncompleted or not paid, uncaring attitudes for the common citizen etc. But during political campaigns in election years, are all kinds of promises of job creation, financial breakthroughs, liberation unto freedom for all and so forth. But only a few percentage of the national population get the benefit and rewards after election has been done. Based on all happenings in the country and world – wide, it is justified of a world created for the benefit and reward of the sociologist and the political scientist. Not in favor of the scientist, security forces and engineer and if possible the business man. Talk of the presidents, the actors, music industry, the church ministerial level, the minister and all those in governance. All from the political science and sociologist background. For instance, the actor’s world is full of fun and enjoyment, all the fame, driving the big cars, the beautiful hotels, living in beautiful buildings, making all the travels (both locally and internationally). Meanwhile, the actor does not write script, just learn the script, act, plays the roles and gets all the fame and enjoyment. Talk of the work of the engineer and scientist involved. How much is his salary or remenurations for creating the beautiful car, nice building, all equipments and gadgets for the movie, radio and TV industry? The sociologist or political scientist is never involved with serious hard work when it comes to creation but the most fortunate in the country or economy when it comes to enjoying the goodies of the land. Talk of the president, minister, the pastor, actor, musician etc, this entire category from the background of the sociologist and political scientist. The Dr Kwame Nkrumah creation and political liberation from political slavery and oppression has never resulted the needed results. If the needed results was ever achieved and attained, then it is on tribal bases as not all have benefited in the Nkrumah generation governance. All happenings, characteristics, features and attributes of most governing bodies since independence is protection of the Nkrumah’s tribal freedom liberation. Dr Kwame Nkrumah has been tagged as Fante from Nkroful but that is a true lie and deceit. It is just politically initiated and the only way to siphon and enjoy the goodies and gold resource of Ghana. Have you observed the language tongue of a true Fante? What of the northerner tongue and language? History has it all western migration into the Gold coast was basically around the coast – Fante lands. It could possibly be Akwapim lands as history might tell as Kyerepong and other Akwapim Twi speaking people still exist there comparable to what is found in the Eastern Region of Ghana but in this 21st century as Fante lands. All whites’ settlement and governance was around and within the coast. So by generation and creation, Fante’s are justified as being British, white tongue users and is justified by the way Fante’s speak and the tongues English language speaking smoothness.
What of the tongue of the northerner and people from the northern region, Upper East region and Upper West region. Is there any resemblance of Kwame Nkrumah’s tongue with the people from the northern region? Or the same speaking language tongue compared to the tongue of the Fante’s. But history has it recorded of Dr Kwame Nkrumah born on 21st September 1909 in Nkroful, Gold Coast. There are written documents to confirm what happened 115 years (1909 -2024) ago. If nothing at all, year of independence 1957 did not have anything like World wide web, internet and digital information sharing system in Ghana for this history to be justified before all. The Ghanaian gold has been locked into an account and I believe it’s an account led by the Dr Kwame Nkrumah total liberation and fight for freedom. If Dr Kwame Nkrumah fought for freedom and liberation and won, did he win all the gold inclusive? In which account did he leave the gold production business in Ghana. Does Kwame Nkrumah marriage with the Fathia Ritzk, an Egyptian Coptic bank worker and former teacher ring a bell? Lived in exile in Conakry, Guinea as the guest of President Ahmed Sekou Toure, who made him honary co – president of the country? These are all penned down raw facts but what is happening in the 21st century Ghana. Talk of all the 16 regions in Ghana. In terms of regions to tribe’s ratio, northerners ration to other regions is 3:13. Look at current migration issues in Ghana and the rate of country deterioting attitude. Does the 2024 political election year ring any bell? What of the chosen presidential candidate for the NPP and NDC?
Why this take off after a total world shutdown (during the Akuffo Addo Dankwa led government) and a new take off of the world in 2019/2020 Covid. Never expect a pilot/driver to pilot/drive through storms and take over the piloting/driver wheels in safe mode or periods. This is comparably like a new creation for the next generation and a complete automatic and force take off by the northerner creation. Can’t this be comparable to Nkrumah take off in 1957 after obtaining freedom from the British? How many northerners tongue speakers and users compared to southern tongue/British tongue users and speakers among the BIG SIX who fought for independence? You and I were not there but possibly the 60 years old political scientist or sociologist was at the polling station and therefore can attest or justify that fact. These are questions worth investigating and analyzing for the good will of Ghanaians, the British and the world at large. This is simply because of the downward direction of the country full of lies, corruption, fifth and supposed governance and development of country through loans/grants from donor partners and so forth.
Who can depend solely on loan from a bank, financial institution or friend without a repayment plan when talking about greatness in life or development of a country? Can one get continues loan from a bank without repayment plan before another loan? Assuming Mr A going for a loan for about 10 times from Ghana Commercial Bank (GCB) worth GHC20,000 amounting to Ghc200,000 without repayment plan. Is it not for the GCB to go bankrupt? There will be a total crush of GCB if this is extended to 1000 population who needs loans with this same motive. Then what of receiving loans from China continuously for instance for all projects in Ghana without a repayment plan. Won’t China go bankrupt or run the country’s money down. Is the white man ever in a position to do this, give money continuously to a country for development without a repayment plan? Is China willing to do this for all other countries? Why won’t the country Ghana be full of uncompleted projects? Most of these uncompleted projects have being in that manner for a purpose. All these because of the issue of money. What the Ghanaian will say ‘sika asem’. Who doesn’t need money? Developed countries are developing at a faster rate because of money. Who doesn’t want to be rich, who doesn’t love better things. We all love goodies and need development as a country Ghana and people. What a Nigerian will call a money ritual, a Ghanaian will call money medicine – sika aduro, to heal poverty or money sickness. Hence it is justifiable for Ghanaian to sort or look for a new way of solving Ghanaian problems rather than building a country solely dependent on loans or grants from foreign partners. The issue of building Ghanaian economy based on loans and grants is another questionable act with several big international mineral gold mining companies dotted around the country. Ghana as a country is full of gold mines generating billions of pounds sterling’s and cedis and various real mineral and human gold bars on monthly basis. There exist a missing link or question mark somewhere pointing in the direction of tribalism and political lies in Ghana political setup worth researching and justifying.
Can you think of the rate at which people from other African countries are entering Ghana through Burkina Faso, Togo, Nigeria and making Ghana ugly and filthy all in the names of collection of scrapes? They just pick some wrist watches, nail cutters, dresses, mats, bags etc walks all the way from other African countries and Burkina Faso and into Ghana. This are all northerner tribal related. Looks like other African countries do not want the peace and greatness of Ghana and the Ghanaian economy. This has made the Ghanaian environment and economy too ugly. It has even increased the rate of illegal gold mining business in Ghana destroying forest reserves, lands and water bodies. At Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana for instance is the total destruction of river Birim and Supong. These are things worth investigating and analyzing by security professionals for the good will and wellbeing of mother Ghana.
These are various questions worth justifying through this research to see the main motive of the tribal and political intelligence in Ghana towards development since independence to the 21st century. Then what possible deductions can be made for readjustment and refinement towards the development of Ghana for the next generation.
2 JUSTIFICATION OF RAW FACTS ON POLITICAL LIES
2.1 Wearing of Fugu (Northerner Cloth) during independence Speech before Ghanaians and the World.
Justification for actions and inactions are evidenced based and a good example is the celebration of Independence Day after a great battle by the Nkrumah led government against our colonial masters which is the British. Based on raw facts, documentaries and other printable documents, the day of independence against the British by the government led movement towards independence was celebrated with a speech but one symbolic item is the ‘dress code’ of the big six. They were all in Fugu attire of which a speech was shared. All Ghanaian tribes in Ghana celebrates symbols of unity, citizenship, tribal traits, a sense of belonging through language and mother tongue, food, clothing, facial appearances etc. One can easily identify the tribe of a fellow Ghanaian through the cloth he/she wears or way of dressing. And Fugu in Ghana is always associated with people of the three northern regions especially in the case of Ghana. And if possible in other African countries. So wearing Fugu on the day of independence to celebrate the victory after a hard battle is something related to the northerner. Or in simple terms, it justifies a victory for Ghana or Gold Coast against the British led by the Northerner. This declarations can be analyzed in various ways through logical reasoning and its implications;
It’s a complete northerners registration in battle for victory and independence
A battle for Ghana or Gold Coast led by Dr Kwame Nkrumah who is a northerner
A political party and winning government belonging to the northerner
Takeover government from the British led by the northern
A moslem movement to rule and govern the Gold Coast or Ghana led by the northerner (about 80% Moslems in Ghana) and the world
A change in government and religion from Christian religion to Islamic religion
A well created world and government in the direction of greatness and development changed and reversed in the direction of retraction (Negative way of the statement Forward ever Backward never); this is a fact based on 21st century development in Ghana.
Motive of taking over Gold Coast or Ghana from a well created and intelligent man from an African country based on gold in Ghana. When one looks at movement and shipment of Gold and money from Ghana towards other African countries and final verdict of ending in some African countries and exit from the earth. This is detailed below.
Again, Nkrumah is tagged as someone from the Western Region of Ghana. This can be true and a complete lie to the common Ghana. This is because no one can confidently tell or give correct facts concerning the administrative regions in Ghana during the Gold Coast day’s era. A good example is 10 regions in Ghana comparable to the current 16 regions which is a complete change in terms of new names, geographical position system (GPS) and position of town, community, city or future city. But based on language tongue and dress code, it’s a complete lie to tell or explain to someone that president Dr Kwame Nkrumah is a Fante or from the Western Region of Ghana. It is a complete lie which is worth further analyzing based on Fante’s ways of life, Nkrumah’s declaration and support for Forward Ever Backwards Never couple with current state and affairs of development in Ghana.
Look at it this way again. No human life or being can tell where he/she comes from except by a mother, father, elderly family members or someone. And this citizenship is from the town or community or city where your head with eyes entered into the world. Citizenship coming from where one’s eyes opened to see the new world or creation. That is citizenship being established from the basis of where one is born into the world. This is the reason for citizenship by birth but even that is a question mark? Where final justification is also associated with motive, attitude, actions and contribution towards national and world development. If a real citizen of a town or community is terrorizing and fighting against the system or community, he/she can be thrown off board or into prisons. So if Dr Kwame Nkrumah’s forward ever backwards never is justified with this 21st century Ghana downgrade when dealing and talking about country development and greatness, then there is a missing link worth looking for and fixing. Or there is complete political lies to the advantage of someone somewhere.
2.2 Shipment of Gold and Money to Guinea and landing in Guinea
Dr Kwame Nkrumah is tagged the best ever president Ghana had ever registered in the world whiles others thinks if he hadn’t embarked on his change in rulership and governance from the British , Ghana would have been a better country. Ghana’s way of life, greatness and development would have been comparably the same like other western world countries. Because I believe the whole wide world was set on one platform and asked to move in the direction of greatness and development after the Second World War. This is simple because, one can easily see the creation of a beautiful world of development and greatness in terms of science and engineering in most African Countries. This well created and generated world is the same in the western World. Such beautiful engineered world is seen in most cities of African countries and same in the western world. A good example is Ghana, Senegal, Gambia, Burkina Faso, Nigeria etc. Travel to Accra, Dakar, Banjul and carefully look at the city settings, drainage works, the tall and massive state institutions buildings and they are comparably same as in the western world. This creation should have been taking on a modelling approach, education and training through university intelligence and simulated throughout the country for a western land and city world generation. So it means a world was created out of technology and intelligence for the world to revolve around education, training, planting and generating of such world continuously. A reason for most western countries having the same life in terms of intelligence and development.
But looks like a cycle was broken in terms of a world towards greatness and beauty on the African continent by the Nkrumah led movement. By all assessment and investigations, it looks like that creation was a Christian religion related creation and hence towards salvation, beauty, the goodwill of mankind and great height attainment for the common citizen. But the Nkrumah led movement which I think is Islamic religion focused broke that creation and development cycle. But lied to the common citizen with the phrase ‘Forward ever Backwards Never’. The true reflection and work done by his statement is the current state of Ghana. This is an investigation from one school of thought where one school of thought may prove or want to prove otherwise.
What of the possibility of the Nkrumah led government and world leaders creating and generating a world of greatness and beauty for the world but from the African continent or soil? Where a gold production business and intelligence is generated from Africa to create all kinds of beautiful places and world and hence the need to send the common African into slavery to serve in different fields or capacity through good leadership of a white man and hence a resultant impact or effect on the African Continent. Where at any point in time, a beautiful country or world is created and set as center stage focal point for greatness in all dimensions. A good example is China, other Asian countries and Dubai for instance. Have you ever thought about the world of Football competition between African countries in the 1990’s and in 2025 today? Can Ghana or Nigeria Football team face Chinese team, Korean team and possibly Saudi Arabia national team in this 21st Century? These are all thoughts worth analyzing and further probing. It’s possibly it was human gold and mineral gold production intelligent creation to help the world as a world where you and I may be part of a world and not part of the world when it comes to enjoying or assessing the goodies of the land or soil. But from the objective and perspective of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN – SDG’s), resources are supposed to be shared equitably in life to the advantage of all.
2.3 Bombing at Burkina Faso during Nkrumah Visit
From the world of investigation and research, can it be a possibility that Ghana is being ruled by Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Togolese. That is being governed by three French speaking countries? Where there is intelligent creation motive but the ability to unravel the secrets and mysteries in there is very difficult? Is it also possible that Ghana is being used by this same Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Togolese and other African countries to propagate an agenda of mineral and human gold production to the detriment of the common Ghanaian or one who have lived in Ghana for several years? These are well researched investigations with some raw facts but worth further probing and investigating. Think of the northerner, Ivory Coast and Togolese populations and numbers in Ghana in this 21st Century. And comparably think and investigate the rate of migration from Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Togo which are all Francophone countries. Is there any correlation between Gold Coast and Ivory Coast? An Anglophone country and Francophone country? A British colony country and French colony country? Is there a relationship between the one who owns and mines the gold called gold trade because the country is involved in gold mining production? And the one involved in ivory trade which is basically buying and selling of ivory (tusks of elephants). Is there any explanation between a French speaking personality comparable to the attributes and features of an English speaking personality? Think of the number of Ghanaian communities and towns in the three countries named or registered above. So assuming a gold production business is set up; both human gold and mineral gold with the current rate of migration from Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Togo, who benefits? Who benefits from a well-crafted gold mining business establishment and takeover by these three neighbouring countries in Ghana with their huge numbers and representation in terms of population and manipulation? Assuming Dr Kwame Nkrumah is from Burkina and decides with Ivory Coast, Togo and other Francophone African countries leaders to set up such a business through Ghana, who benefits? Can you imagine how some graduates in Ghana do not get jobs or gets employed in gold mines and state institutions after tertiary educations? These are all questionable acts and behaviours of some secrets, actions and inactions in Ghana when talking about 21st century development in Ghana, mineral gold and human gold production worldwide. Assuming this was a creation from Burkina Faso or corperation and collaboration between the two or more countries and bombing at Burkina Faso for execution of the next intelligence creation direction as discussed by some schools of thoughts or at Kulungugu by another school of thought.
2.4 Forward Ever, Backwards Never
The main objective statement which is the center stage of Dr Kwame Nkrumah’s led leadership and government is ‘Forward Ever Backwards Never’. But a big question we all Ghanaians and a world ought to ask is the meaning, the intelligence and motive in this statement and hence the struggle and battle for freedom and liberation from the governance and rulership of the British. Some are of the assertions that if the British had ruled Ghana and no need for change or the Nkrumah’s fight, Ghana would have been better off. It would have been competition in the direction of greatness in terms of beauty and development among other countries. Can you look at the current state of development in Ghana in terms of everything? And the current destruction if possible all resources coupled with corruption among leaders and the youth. Then again, the generation of a country who thinks and believes complete allegiance to God in terms of song and prayer builds a beautiful country. Everybody in Ghana wants to travel not thinking and knowing that Ghana is someone’s or another countries abroad. Therefore the need to think and create an abroad or country of international status comparable to other countries to attract tourist and develop. Then build a country that will train good scientist and engineers to grow and propagate the country to the next level. Just like we have Ghanaians and other countries nationals in USA working and paying allegiance towards the goodwill and welfare of the USA, other people are in Ghana doing same for their own welfare and countries or nations of origin greatness. And hence Ghanaians needs to think alike or in the same direction. It is possible the Dr Nkrumah’s leadership and government generated a world in the direction of current Dubai to revolve round the world towards greatness and development and hence Forward Ever, backwards Never. Therefore, it’s the time of Ghanaians to learn, think, create and generate a world in that direction. This is after serious work for Ghanaians and the world. OR it could mean Dr Nkrumah embarked on a selfish and greedy ambition for the welfare of other countries or a world to the detriment of the common Ghanaian. Simply because he wasn’t from Ghana and do not wants the welfare and greatness of Ghana but need the gold for his people. Therefore the intelligent creation of a gold mining business for his welfare and good people. A justification for telling Ghanaians I, Dr Kwame Nkrumah will go forward it terms of countries greatness and development. Whiles backwards in terms of countries enrichment is for Ghanaian’s Presidents and his people. Therefore a justification for Forward Ever, Backwards Never. Can you think of the current management of all state resources and items coupled with unwillingness to serve one another? The level of corruption and non-allegiance of security forces to government and non-adherence to rules and laws governing a community or country by citizens? All these negative impacts or effects have proven the negative way of forward ever, backwards never! When this is compared to the governance, operation and management of state resources by the white man and in the western world even though to a certain level (not at level of a probability of 1). So we Ghanaians ought to think and probe further into Dr. Kwame’s Nkrumah’s creation and ask serious questions worth researching for answers, the meaning and motive of ‘Forward Ever Backwards Never’. Based on the current state and affairs in Ghana where a degree holder graduates from school, completes mandatory work to country and state then sits home for years looking for job.
2.5 Free Senior High School Government Policy and Political Intelligence
From the first point above, logical reasoning and its implications, this is rightly applicable to FREE SHS education in Ghana led by the Nana Addo Dankwa Akuffo Addo government. Was FREE SHS Akuffo Addo’s main objective or objective by the former Vice President, Alhaji Mahamudu Bawumai as the second in command but a captain and president for another world or tribe propagating political agenda in an intelligent manner? Who enjoys free education in Ghana most? And in which regions are all the Aids and free money given and generating geared towards in Ghana. I for instance have never enjoyed free education in Ghana and most people in the southern sector are in the same position. Can you imagine the number of scholarships that was given to tertiary students during the 2016 – 2024 Akuffo Dankwa led government gave to Ghanaians tertiary students in Ghana? The total sum of money used to spearhead this scholarships can even build three or four international gold mines in Ghana to help build the Ghanaian economy. I am not against given scholarships but ask of the quality human gold products that are being produced towards national and world development. Then all these actions against stealing and syphoning of government money by Headmasters, Administrators, directors, ministers where raw facts proves of a headmaster buying two cars to the detriment of teachers and staff. Avoiding the opportunity of using this money to complete an administration block for a school. And right after the exit of the Akuffo Addo’s led government out of office and into election is the Nkrumah’s wining and victory attitude; Mr Mahama on the right for election and Dr Bawumai on the left for election towards a total or complete northerner led government registration and take off as pilot after a new world creation – COVID 19 period. Is there a possibility for another project or simulation for another Mr Mahama on the right for election and Dr Bawumai on the left for election towards a total or complete northerner led government registration and take off as pilot in the future with current rambling and tangling in NPP presidential elections? These are questionable acts and raw facts before all Ghanaians and world worth looking into with a deeper and microscopic piecing microscope.
Based on research, investigations from studies areas and Nsutam with illegal gold mining intelligence and motive, I think there is a tribe called Asanteman. Which in terms of phonetics basically looks or literally means; ‘yƐ san ate oman’ – Asanteman. This in English means ‘Establishing another nation or kingdom’ again. This is where one sits down lazily, folds the arms, thinks he/she is smart and intelligent and ask one or the worker to do all the donkey or difficult works with a final take over with guns and intelligence as a thief. Which is one school of thought based on divine creation and Bible and young guys of today’s intelligence and nonsensical insults to business owners and job creators. Think of the current Asanteman explanation and registration at Nsutam in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Where people living in some philosophical world, school of thoughts or regions just gets small scale gold mining certificates from other regions and ends up in Eastern Region for contracts. The contracts are awarded by Newmont Akyem at Abirim with final output for work done to be the destruction of land, water resources, forest reserves, farmlands etc all in the name and philosophy of illegal gold mining. Newmont is where all the nice creation and creative works dealing with gold mining and production are done and completed. Such small scale miners are involved or works in another destruction creators hands justified by the destruction of natural resources and properties worth Billions of Pounds Sterling’s, dollars and cedis with even loss of human lives. This is the case of the COVID – 19 worldwide which is possibly a problem or solution from one philosophical world or school of thought.
3 21ST CENTURY ASSESSMENT OF GHANA
3.1 21st Century Development in Ghana
The 21st century generation, citizens and population in Ghana are bitter and angry at the current state of affairs when talking about job creation, greatness and development of a country. It is on most or all mindset of citizens of Ghana that to make it in life or reach the self-actualization level on the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, one ought to travel. Citizens do not have faith in the economy, one does not see opportunity when it comes to job creation and accessibility. Even though opportunity comes in different forms, everyone and his knowledge level and hence resultant perception in life. As to whether the opportunity is small or big. I think leaders in Ghana wants graduates and the unemployed to make use of their intelligence and mental capacity towards helping themselves, building the economy and meeting their needs as represented in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s). But I think everyone and his mental development process and hence the attainment of a great intelligence and its application at a stage or point in life. It therefore deems fit for leaders to help the vulnerable in the society or country, educate, train and give jobs as a government. This will help them meet the basic physiological needs in life, help themselves and families. Then think through how to better their lives while working assiduously to climb the Maslow’s’ hierarchy of needs ladder in life and help develop the country.
The rate of development in Ghana isn’t in the right direction as stated by Dr Kwame Nkrumah in his statement of forward ever, backwards never. All developments in Ghana are highly political and party initiated and implemented. An uncompleted project by party A has a lower probability that it will be completed by party B. Fanteakwa South district and Eastern Region of Ghana for instance has a lot of uncompleted projects undergoing deterioting process and extinction from the earth. This motive by government in power leads to wastage in terms of resources, unemployment and financial burden on all at the end of every government tenure. A justification for wastage of graduate’s intelligence and ability, four years wastage in the university in Ghana and other African countries. This is a problem worth investigating and analyzing when it comes to development on participatory approach and not on the basis of party tickets or party lines. Ghana needs development on all fronts; roads constructions, buildings or housing facilities, drainage networks, sewage networks, bioengineering works, hospitals construction, in the education sectors, water resources management, treatments and distribution, afforestation, job creation etc. It’s a basic principle to learn from others and that ought to be the motive of the young generation when it comes to the development and management of the economy. Everyone is a government as anyone can be a president today from the concept of school off thought. The very way one wants to be an assembly man, another member of parliament (MP) and another a Minister towards the presidency as president. The next 50 years president is being admitted at Kindergarten or Primary one (1) today which is a scenario but a reality too. Everyone knows something to the extent of even a mad man knowing something for going through madness school of thought which you, a so called healthy individual has never attended or graduated from before. Therefore, if your mental capacity has developed to the extent of being a leader, never use it to intimidate or bully others. In a nutshell, act responsibly when the duty of responsibility lies on your shoulders. Everyone and his mental capacity development stage in life. Ghana needs to look at the development and country building intelligence by other countries and work on going in that same direction.
3.2 21st Century Management and State institutions Collaboration and partnership in state affairs.
Management of state institution by current generation is very bad with high degree of quest for money first and not offering services for giveaways by clients or customers. Most state institution are in a very bad state and people or managers are not willing to share views, accepts corrections or implement recommendations. Most private and some institutions are not managed in that manner. Money oriented managers and directors operating as group have made the state institutions their own property and not willing to allow the system flow for good controlling and operation by able hands. The state of collaboration that is supposed to exist between state institutions and generate money into government accounts or coffers for projects and initiatives is very poor. This is draining government pocket and accounts on monthly basis as payments for government workers is on monthly basis. Most countries progress and development is basically based on generating of income and money by all state institutions in a collaborative manner. But this is not same in Ghana as most institutions are operated loosely and generating money into individual’s hands and pockets. For instance;
Payment for tariffs (water, electricity) to Ghana Water Company, Water Resources Commission and Electricity Company of Ghana for water and power (electricity) usage. Effective management of accrued money for services offered for all water projects, usage in the water industry and in the power industry.
Payment of road user fee at Tollbooth to Ghana Highway Authority for roads constructions and management of roads.
Generation of revenue through police reports, arrests, illegalities by Ghana Police Services and Security Forces
Fees paying and profits generations from the Ghana Education Service instead of free education (FREE SHS).
Treatment of all illness and disease at a cost by Ghana Health Service professionals to generate funds into government accounts etc.
Revenue generations from the Registrar’s Generals Department through business registrations, certifications, monitoring and quarterly or yearly returns analysis.
Revenues (tax) generation from all state and public bodies and individuals by Ghana Revenue Authority and its Collectors for government projects planting and establishments etc.
Researches and investigations by security forces like immigration services, Ghana Navy, Ghana Military and gives results like from Natural Resources Conservation Services in hydrology and hydraulics. Results and outputs generated from such institutions becomes data that can be sold and money generated into government coffers or is used by the state institutions. For instance, climate data and rainfall data from Meteorological services Department etc.
From the above assertions, it’s well justified that state institutions are supposed to work by coordinating and collaborating with each other. Then generate money through partnership and collaboratively for the running of the institution and into government accounts for picking and planting jobs for the unemployed graduates in Ghana and worldwide.
3.3 The 21st Century Forward Ever, Backwards Never Ghana
If another Ghana is to be built to justify the positive side and direction of forward ever backwards never comparable to Ghana in 2025 as said by Dr Kwame Nkrumah! Then the leaders and siting government need to work collaboratively and not on tribal basis or on tribal grounds. It looks like Ghana is deterioting simply because of the concept of ownership and leadership in Ghana. Every tribe wants to prove to be the owners of the land and hence comparably the same motive in the minds of leaders of the country in every regard. But Ghana needs to develop and generate a beautiful wealthy country through participatory approach and collaboration. In this way the following recommendations and points can be analyzed or probed, reviewed further and applied if applicable;
Build a beautiful modern city like a university, estate or institution with all facilities with modern intelligence and engineering eg is University of Environment and Sustainable Development under construction at Bunso in the Eastern Region of Ghana. A possible change in university name but with same building concept and intelligence as a model for the new Ghana.
The modern intelligence and engineering will includes, good tall buildings, good housing buildings and facilities, good roads, good electrification system, beautiful drainage networks, proper sewage systems, beautiful bioengineering works, well-constructed and coordinated state institutions, good management and collaborative way of making money into government accounts by all state institutions, creating a system where the education system purposely trains children and the young to take over and operate such a project or country development.
The above deliberation will constitute the accoutrements or components of a whole one catchment area even though there might be small catchments within this catchment.
This catchment will be comparable to one complete zone within a town or city with meeting roads around it.
Then building a complete town or city made up of several catchments will be by picking the architectural design and mounting it catchment by catchment with little or some modifications. This is simply because engineering deals with real time simulation based on feasibility studies of geographical location, associated characteristics of project area, seasons of siting of project and other factors.
Then simulation of the project over the whole town, city, region and country.
There will be the building of big malls, entertainment places with some monuments and edifices of beauty for entertainments and happy moods generations during holidays and weekends.
The whole water resources sector will be worked on regionally by engineers towards generating a pure quality clean water to meet the SDG’s. Then obtain water flowing under high pressures for hydropower projects and those with large surface areas that can allow boats and ships to move one as learning and entertainment sources.
There will be waste management sector to manage all wastages and generated wastes in the country towards obtaining a clean towns, cities and country comparable to some western countries like UK, USA, and Dubai, Germany etc. Since waste management and usage is problem, one can employ lecturers in the waste management sector to hold the process together. This intelligence will be applied to cover various sectors of the economy as a clean and beautiful city and country is generated for the now and future generations.
Generation of such a project will be through collaborative approach and engineered. A whole catchment project will constitute a team led by an experienced engineer supervisor. And working under the engineer supervisor will be all kinds of workers or experts that can handle a whole estate building project. A good example is the modelled University of Environment and Sustainable Development project at Bunso in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Such a project is a big employment industry for the unemployed graduate and all. And with this, migrating to abroad will be on lesser note or with a different motive.
Such a project will generate a beautiful country for Ghana and with a possibility of simulating for the whole world. Simulating for the whole wide world is regardless. It simply means taking it to the ends of the world where it doesn’t exist.
3.4 World Development and impacts from Real time Political Intelligence
3.4.1 Establishment of Ministry of Goldway Worldwide
Money is the first and foremost important parameter and symbol which quantifies anything on planet earth whenever one is talking about buying and selling worldwide. Money is a gold which means a real precious mineral (or figure) when dealing with buying and selling in terms of exchange of goods and services. Everyone on planet earth talks and deals with money basically meaning we are all involved with money issues or problems one way or the other. The government talks about money, the government worker talks and deals with money, the estate developer deals with money, the scientist, the engineer, the pilot, the mechanic, the trader or seller at the market, the banker and the common citizen in the society. So in summary, everyone deals and talks about money with the only difference being the particular currency at any point in time. That is either the pounds sterling’s, the dollar, Euro, the cedis, CFA, yen, Naira. These are all money with different symbols of authority based on country, history, allegiance, geographical locations, features, determining factors and finally a weighting factor highly dependent on countries development and impact on the world and its development. And this currency or money is what is moving and developing a country based on inflows and outflows into individual hands, business, home, job or business. But in all these assertions, there is one important group or categories who are dealing with money at any time ‘t’ when talking about buying and selling in real life. And that is the trader or the market man/woman. The beans seller, the meat seller, that rice and flour supplier and any other person at the market. The cashier at the bank or banker deals with money but not in terms of direct selling and buying of goods. Why am I interested in the trader or seller at the market when it comes to money, national development and world development in Ghana? Most countries have all kinds of institutions playing different roles and these institutions have been classified as one body contributing to the welfare and development of oneself, country and world. For instance is the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Défense, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Gender, Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Communication, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Sports, Ministry of Energy etc. Most of these ministries are common among countries worldwide with some being different from the other. But possibly with the same roles and responsibilities in a country’s management or world development. This is a clear indication of landing spot that is either as a world controller or country control room operator. So basically this is a reason for some ministries having the same name, the same representation and responsibility in all countries worldwide. The same with different names and less representation worldwide. In totality, it means it’s possible some don’t know how a ministry in government is formed or established while others may have been on that difficult road which leads to a beautiful destination in real life before.
In Ghana for instance which is the research area and main country of focus for data, analysis and scenario generations, there are all kinds of classifications forming a ministry in Government. Examples includes the above listed ministries worldwide which gives thousands of jobs and wages and salaries to employees on monthly basis with associated taxes . These taxes ends up in government account or coffers for various activities towards job creation and world development. But ask yourself if the market woman selling eggs, beans, distributing rice and flour, the factory worker, the graphic designer, the wakye seller in that corner of the street is effectively taxed on monthly basis and contributing to country and world development? The Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA) and revenue collectors have been given this responsibility, but how effective is the collection and taxing system? Compare this to a medical Doctor Husband and accountant wife forming a family who are taxed before payment at the end of the month or salary or wages hitting the personal bank account. Think of this scenario for instance, taxing two families where family A is working for the government and family B are traders not paying taxes or being taxed effectively at the end of the month. All the analyzed figures are applicable in all currencies worldwide.
Table 1: Two family taxing system analysis (Gh₵ or ₵)
Family A
Family B
Husband(Doctor)
Wife(Accountant)
Husband(Mechanic)
Wife(Rice Distributor)
Monthly Salary
Gh₵10,000
Gh₵8,000
Gh₵7,500
Gh₵6,000
Monthly Tax (10%)
Gh₵1000
Gh₵800
Gh₵750
Gh₵600
Yearly Tax
Gh₵12,000
Gh₵9,600
Gh₵9,000
Gh₵7,200
Total Contribution by Family per Year
Gh₵108,000
Gh₵16,200
Ten Years Contribution Effect
Gh₵1,080,000
Gh₵162,000
Research findings establishes the salary or wages for husband Doctor and wife accountant payable by the government on monthly basis. But then, there is a procedure which justifies the ₵10,000 for husband and ₵8,000 for wife monthly wages based on work input on daily basis. Let assume the husband mechanic saves ₵250 on daily basis for 30days average for all months in a year. Then also into daily savings of ₵200 for 30 days average for the wife for the whole year round. Then for a monthly salary for the husband mechanic is ₵7,500 and ₵6000 for the Rice distributor and the corresponding taxing analysis above. This is on a lower scale or level. But what of on a higher scale or level as in the case of distributing point shops or factory where a seller a trader picks good and pays ₵2000 upfront? In such a situation, a business owner or trader can pay or save ₵5000 per day. This is analyzed in the Table 2 below comparable to a government earner in that category.
Table 2: Two family taxing system analysis on a higher level (Gh₵ or ₵)
Family A
Family B
Husband(Director)
Wife(Accountant)
Husband(Car Dealer)
Wife(Goods Distributor)
Monthly Salary
Gh₵60,000
Gh₵40,000
Gh₵1,000,000
Gh₵1,500,000
Monthly Tax (10%)
Gh₵6,000
Gh₵4,000
Gh₵100,000
Gh₵150,000
Yearly Tax
Gh₵72,000
Gh₵48,000
Gh₵1,200,000
Gh₵1,800,000
Total Contribution by Family per Year
Gh₵120,000
Gh₵3,000,000
Ten Years Contribution Effect
Gh₵1,200,000
Gh₵30,000,000
Analysis from Table 1 and Table 2 gives a clear indication that the government of Ghana is losing huge sums of money on monthly, yearly and decade basis for the trader or seller who is not taxed. And it is possibly same in countries or regions where the tax collecting system in that country is not well regulated in the market sector or in the buying and selling business sector. Think of the two families having three wards each who graduates in the university in years to come with undergraduate degrees to doctor of philosophy level and to be employed by the government of Ghana or the government. One can ask himself or herself. What is the contribution by the two families towards tax generation or income for the government, job creation in the country, national development and world development? These and many more reasons for the MINISTRY OF GOLWAY establishment in Ghana, other countries and if possible worldwide. This is where all traders will be classified under one body or institution (MINISTRY OF GODWAY) and under it is a business entity or company called GLORY SUSU and other departments. This will be a company or business entity that will be employed to generate monthly income for all traders, sellers, drivers, fashion designers, and other professionals not classified under one umbrella in government. It will be simply generating a monthly salary, wages or income around whatever business one is running, spearheading or involved in. But it is subject to all kinds of conditions with the poor trader in mind because of sustainability of business, family he or she is running, daily earnings and the inflows and outflows of money in business. And out of the generated monthly salary for the trader will be a percentage for income tax for government comparable to the percentage income tax from government workers in Ghana and worldwide into government account on monthly basis. The percentage for tax will depend on all kinds of factors used to generate income tax for the worker in government and will be the same for the government worker. In Ghana for instance is 16.6% as according to my payslip. This MINISTRY OF GOLDWAY is applicable to all countries worldwide who have difficulty when it comes to the collection and accountability for income tax from the trader or seller in the market. The currency (Gh₵) used here (Table 1 & 2) as a scenario is also applicable to all currencies worldwide like the dollar ($), pound sterling’s (£), CFA France, Euro (€) etc.
3.4.2 Establishment of Ministry of Management and Maintenance Worldwide
Management and maintenance issue especially in the case of state owned institutions facilities and buildings is a major problem in Ghana and possibly same in other countries worldwide. With this under discussion, it is of utmost importance in this 21st century to have a body or institution that works in that direction as all and everybody on earth is now concern with beauty and aesthetics at all levels. It is necessary to have a body that will give or generate a structure or system that will keep these institutions anew and fresh always. Assuming Ghana decides to build modern towns, cities and country to international standards with everything in place. How do we keep the beauty, aesthetics and freshness always? There is therefore the need for another ministry that will basically look at how or ensures the renovation of state institutions, roads, sewage system, government projects, private projects etc through self-financing intelligence (by the ministry itself) and money generation process towards beauty of the system, country and for sustainability. There is therefore the need for the establishment of MINISTRY OF MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE to cater for all management and how to maintain the well-built or generated town, city or country always anew all year round. By this declaration, I mean there will be a fund generation process to cater for the paintings, bioengineering works and little addition or modifications of all state institutions, housing systems, private structures, projects and other areas deemed fit and appropriate. Think of this simple simulation to generate money internally for this ministry on monthly basis and major maintenances works done within 6 months or on yearly basis. The scenario is applicable in all other currencies worldwide and highly dependent on population. Populations living in housing system is by estimation and hence subject to real time research and investigations in every country. But there is a high degree of confidence in estimating population size in this research work as detailed in Table 3.
Determining factors upon which population size in housing system depends includes;
Development status of country
Size of economy, job creation and accessibility potential
Migrations
Education levels
Languages
Housing system and accessibility etc.
And upon critical consideration and examination of these factors carefully, the percentage population that are living in housing system and will be able to pay Gh₵20 ranges from 50% – 60%. This is the case for Ghana but is applicable to all population countries worldwide at possibly the same rate but different currency interpretations.
Table 3: Monthly and Yearly estimation of Total amount generated to feed the Ministry of Management and Maintenance in its operation
Country
Amount Per head/ Family Size (Per Month)
Total Population Per Each Country
Population in Housing System (Per Estimate)
Total Amount per Month
Total Amount per Year
Ghana
Gh₵20
34.43Million
18Million
Gh₵360Million
Gh₵43.2Billion
UK
£20
68.2Million
34Million
£680Million
£8.16Billion
United States of America
$20
339.8Million
200Million
$4Billion
$48Billion
3.4.3 Establishment of Ministry of Lotteries and Bettings
The lotteries institution or organization has been in existence over several decades with the inception of the technological betting industry (sporting industry for instance). With modern intelligence and interest in the sporting industry, the lotteries industry and betting industry is a big sector worth considering and taking to the next level in government. Especially in the case of analyzing the quantum of money generated on daily, weekly, monthly and yearly basis from the lotteries and betting industry. With new creation intelligence, formation and its associated establishment of new ministries in government, it deems fit to add more ministries which have an impact parameter or factor. The Lotteries and betting industry has huge quantum of money in its coffers or accounts comparable to other newly formed ministries in Government in Ghana for instance. This is especially in the case of Ghana’s government like the ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Fisheries and aquaculture (This is same Ministry of Agriculture), Ministry of Communication (same as Ministry of Information). The above-mentioned ministries have been worked on and classified already with Ministry of Tourism for instance in Ghana money generation for ministry operations and impact on Ghana’s economy and development on a minimal level. But think and ask of the impacts of the Lotteries and Betting industry in Ghana in terms of wealth generation, country and world development, keeping faith and hope alive in the life’s of the unemployed graduate, the common citizen, the monthly income level of lottery and betting lovers, tax into government coffers, projects, the happy mode generation philosophy around the lottery, betting and sporting games in Ghana and worldwide and finally the employment industry created or generated? It’s worth to be classified to another level in Ghana and given international recognition in government. These are few reasons for the need for the establishment of MINISTRY OF LOTTERIES AND BETTINGS in Ghana and worldwide. Under the ministry will be the National Lottery Authority (NLA) which is operational in Ghana, the National Betting Authority (NBA) and other departments under them playing pivotal roles. Then at the University level will be the School of Lotteries and Bettings as a school of thought worth teaching and learning, understanding by students for country and world development. Because the lottery Sheet/book in Ghana for instance is a big mathematics manual worth understanding and analyzing. It comprises subjects or topics like permutation (perm) as used by lotto lovers, combinations, additions, subtractions, factorials, week endings (used by teachers for lesson plans preparations), dates in the month, dates or years of events etc. This is a whole school of thought whose manual is released on weekly basis (Mondays for the week) in Ghana for study and getting the five lotto numbers (as answers) after vigorous study and analysis then stamping final authority on it with money for a price or fee or winning amount according to marking scheme, which is the five numbers to be released by the lotto machines. This is the old lotto system in Ghana with results released on Saturdays at 5pm according to research and findings. The concept of Bettings also comprises of additons, subtractions, logical reasoning, graphs analysis, odds determinations, fractions, weigh factors determination, teams’ history, achievement levels, computer programming’s and a whole mathematical concept and philosophies. And these are all university courses and various schools of thoughts worth investigations and researching into. It’s again a good way of learning everything about a sporting game or activity (Football, Basketball, Volleyball, Rugby, Cricket etc) and keeping the data or records for history and unborn generations.
Someone might ask as to whether Lottery and Bettings is worth but according to the biblical books, ‘Jesus cloth was used for this same purpose towards proving a school of thought or investigating something after being hanged on the cross of Calvary’. Where the Roman officials threw a dice on his cloth for a cause, reason or to find out the next person to investigate the issue at hand – as a scenario and possibility for dying on the cross of calvary. According to the first four books of the New Testament ‘Then the soldiers nailed him to the cross. They divided his clothes and threw dice* to decide who would get each piece’. These are mysteries and secrets associated with the Biblical books and life which justifies the various schools of thoughts and philosophical world of intelligence. This is a clear justification for the creation of the School of Lotteries and Bettings and its impacts on world development. The betting industry as a school is dealing with contents such as Fractional odds, algorithms, programming languages etc as indicated above . These are schools of thoughts worth teaching and learning which gives a justification for its representation in the university. Every concept or argument is subject to a lot of assessment, validation and correction before acceptance by all. It is not everything that is consumable can be eaten by all as has been read in the biblical books. Where God asked peter to kill it and eat since everything is cleansed and acceptable unto God. But even that, everything is subject to our own will even though God recommends allowing His will to be done in our lives as can be seen in the books of Moses.
3.5 Mineral gold production coupled with Human Gold Production and Theological Exploration besides Political applications
3.5.1 Mineral Gold Production
Gold as a precious mineral is very expensive when it comes to exploration, discovery, mining and refining to obtain a pure quality mineral for exploits. For exploits is looking at where it can be sold for millions of pounds (M£) towards enrichment of oneself or towards greatness attainment in life. In terms of the enrichment in life is where the gold is quantified in monetary terms after selling and obtained money is used to buy or build mansions, buy cars, establish big companies, help the needy or poor in society, meet the SDG’s, help build a better country or world. It is also used as ornaments for decoration and beauty especially in the case of ancient chiefs and rich men and women. It is been used in this direction but on a lower level due to its huge price tag in this 21st century, difficulty in accessing the mineral and the needed input or effort against cost of investments. It is easy to access with machines but can the common illegal gold miner afford the price or buy one earth moving machine for illegal gold mining in Ghana?
Mineral gold production is accessed through rock mining, surface mining, or on water bodies. Rock mining is where pure gold is accessed from rocks by crushing rocks and embarking on due processing for the real gold in high purity of Karat. This gold is either accessed legally through standard operating procedures like at Newmont Akyem, Newmont Ahafo, Anglogold Ashanti, Persues Mines, Tarkwa Mines, Bogoso Mines etc. But a big question to ask is Anglo-gold comparable to Anlo – gold? (Volta land ‘Anlo’ – gold or? This is a big question worth analyzing from the perspective of tribalism, politics and creation intelligence. It’s a research question worth further investigating and probing. The above listed gold mining companies are all involved in legal gold mining business and operations generating several gold bars per week, per month and yearly towards town development, region development, country and world development. All development are towards enrichment and greatness attainment but in different dimensions. A good example is in meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SGD’s) of the United Nations and embarking on World Bank projects for the goodwill of all citizens and people worldwide. This same gold is also accessed illegally in Ghana and Nsutam is no exception. The illegal gold mining business in Ghana always comes with a repercussion. The consequences here is the destroying of land resources, water resources, forest reserves, destruction of animals and aquatic habitats and finally the loss of human lives. This is seen on a lighter note on the part of the International gold mining companies due to standardization and the use of standard operating procedures (SOP’s). This is what entails in mineral gold production. That is gold obtained from rocks, soil and in water bodies and refined to a high purity state for enrichment, greatness attainment and meeting SDG’s worldwide by the UN.
But one shouldn’t just be interested in the precious mineral but the difficult and troubling journey towards attainment and final purity in karate or state. Anything worth much in life is worth suffering and acquiring and this is great philosophy associated with gold production worldwide. And this is the case for the mineral gold production worldwide by all legal gold mining companies or from the illegal gold miner (Galamseyers).
3.5.2 Human Gold Production
Gold status attainment and analysis highly depends on view point in life. Everyone and his/her perception, view point in life and understanding level based on the school of thought under consideration. Everything in life or reality boils down to how one sees or perceives it. There is what is called human gold production in life which is another school of thought. This is in two folds; human gold production through the education system and biblical grounds human gold production. The biblical human gold production basically deals with once faith and believe and ability to anchor and struggle through that faith towards greatness or richness attainment in society or country. This will be expatiated in the next sub topic. The human gold production through the education system or educating oneself in school structures or buildings is also explained here.
3.5.2.1 Human gold production through the education system
The human gold production through the education system according to Danquah and Amposah (2024), is explained in this way. The human gold production looks at how one identifies academia or learning in school structures/buildings as the ultimate path and root towards greatness or enrichment in life (refined real gold status). And hence justifies it by climbing the academic ladder from kindergarten to doctor of philosophy (PHD) level and beyond. The basic concept here is seeing a cell as the basic unit of life. Again viewing that, the basic unit of a building or house is a block or brick. The justification here is sowing a seed into the soil in good faith and allowing it to germinate under favorable or unfavorable conditions. Then nurturing it through weeding, mulching, irrigation, pruning, fertilization etc into a giant tree that feeds all with thousand birds playing and laying in it unto the next generation. In this case, one goes through a series or all kinds of learning (about 85% books usage), courses and programs after a well-defined choice of program, profession, career or a school of thought. The student or individual goes through all the pressures, the hustles, struggles, money issues (sika asem) associated with education and mid night burning of candles for several years. This is what one goes through and in doing so, builds a very strong foundation and faith in a chosen field or path through academia with associated spirituality level. All in the name of being refined into pure gold medal, bar or refined individual or personality for greater works or to impact generations in the future. This is where real gold products in the form of graduates are obtained in various fields to help build the nation and world. This research work is justified in doing same for now and future generations through well-defined school building structures that meets the demands of this technological age. With this engineers, lawyers, agriculturists, scientists, artist, business men and women, footballers and other professionals will be trained, refined and obtained as pure gold bars products to serve mankind and future generations. The pure gold products has the potential of serving town, region, and nation or being boxed and shipped to other countries to help build a beautiful world for all. We or most people are finding themselves on the international stage to help build a country or impact the world through this process. Since there are different schools of thoughts and motive for actions and inactions. For instance, another school of thought can be thinking of working on the human penis as a gold production business. These are all schools of thoughts and philosophical intelligent world of creation motives identified through investigations and research. Where one thinks to be seen as man or real man is highly dependent on manhood largeness and size. Where another world of creation thinks real man is highly dependent on intelligence or knowledge level and to another is the quantum of money in the pocket and wealth. These are all human gold production intelligent creations and schools of thoughts.
With a justification for mineral gold production as explained above which balances human gold production, refined man is able to explore, engineer and mine real gold as a refined gold product on planet earth. And then initiate the use of real mineral gold to address needs such as SDG’s of the United Nations (UN) and for World Bank projects. The gold is used as real gold or quantified in terms of monetary languages usable by all. This helps to address all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) as there will be eradication of poverty, hunger, promote good health and well-being, give quality education (quality human gold production), address gender equality, provide water and electricity for all. From the sustainable development goals (SDG’s) is also peace and justice establishment among citizens and finally, ensures partnership, collaboration and coordination among all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) for the United Nations and embark on World Bank projects for the good will of all mankind worldwide.
3.5.2.2 Human Gold Production and theological foundations from the Christian perspective
The Bible is made up of books which contains inspirational words from the highest being (God) and meant for correction, nurturing, training and pruning mankind into a refined gold products acceptable unto God himself. This refined human gold products becomes tools or instruments to be used for glorification and accomplishing tasks and missions in His vineyard. This biblical books talks or deals in human gold production but not directly written in the scriptures. But from the concept of schools of thought is a justification for this. The whole concept of the great commission task by Jesus in the Bible is the foundation or basis for human gold production in the Bible. ‘Jesus came and told his disciples, I have been given all authority in heaven and on earth. Therefore go and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the son and the Holy Spirit. Teach these new disciples to obey all the commands I have given you. And be sure of this; I am with you always, even to the end of the age’. This is the ‘Great Commission’ task from Jesus to his disciples (11 disciples comparable to 11 players forming a football team?) before ascension into the heavens after his salvation work on planet earth. This forms the foundational message and basis for the Christian gospel and family. After the acceptance of Christ into once life and being baptized into the Christian family is the process for work input for once own salvation with fear and trembling at any point in time throughout the Christian journey on earth. This comes with reading the Bible, prayers, fasting, meditations, fellowship and all kinds of religious sacrifices, rituals and activities. All these rituals are geared toward obtaining a good Christian in the vineyard of God and for the work of God. This is also coupled with teachings, correction, counselling’s, help and support from Christians or believers who are at the level of chewing bones as such a person will still be breastfeeding in the vineyard of God. This is seeing life as a dependent and independent figure towards a refined human gold product. The implication here is the mature Christian offering help and support to the new or young believer or babe Christian. Such a young believer or Christian is subject to all kinds of trails, tribulations, fights, hunger, torcher, anguish and all kinds of unnecessary conditions and wilderness from the accuser or enemy. And such a Christian should be willing to pass the examination here through personal hardwork and fight with some support from the mature Christian. The final justification after going through the trials, anguish, torcher and standing tall and strong in the Christian faith to pass the examination is a refined human gold product. That will be formed and fashioned for good use in the vineyard of God towards good works and glorification. This is comparable to refinement of mineral gold by passing it through fire and obtaining refined real gold with high purity and karat. This is summarized in the book of 1 Peter as ‘So be truly glad, there is a wonderful joy ahead even though you have to endure many trials for a little while. The trials will show that your faith is genuine. It is being tested as fire test and purifies gold – though your faith is far more precious than mere gold. So when your faith remains strong through many trials, it will bring you much praise and glory and honour on the day when Jesus Christ is revealed to the whole world’. These are the words of Apostle Peter to the church or Christian’s family concerning trails, tribulation, pain, anguish etc which are legal or illegal gold mining associated issues. These issues are repercussions one does goes through in real life, in the Christian faith or as a gold mining engineer to obtain real mineral gold legally or illegally (Galamsey). This is what the whole church doctrine, concept and process is about. In summary is shown below;
It all begins with the identification of a need, problem, sin factor and hence a salvation hand or man
After this is the confession for sins and inactions;
Then accepting Jesus Christ as Lord and personal savior;
Baptism with flowing water (comparable to Jesus baptism in River Jordan) – Cleansing of oneself with water from dirt as detailed in Danquah (2026) paper.
Then baptism of the Holy Ghost; That is baptism of the Spirit to commune and communicate with God and that is Baptism of the spirit by the Holy Ghost;
Working out of once own salvation with fear and trembling coupled with additions, subtractions, protections, counselling’s and monitoring from mature believers in the Christendom or Christian family; The whole concept of faith, trials, tribulations and gold refinement and processing stages in the human gold production business is seen here;
At the maturity level in the Christian journey will be the final refined human gold products for greater works in God’s vineyard and world development to propagate the gospel unto future generations.
This final refined human gold product is the treasure to propagate the gospel to the ends of the world. Such a human gold product is the new leader to lead the next generation through the same church gold mining or religious gold mining process. These refined human gold products are embedded with spiritual gifts and justified as Apostles, Prophets, Pastors, Teachers, Miracle workers, etc for the edification of the church. The basic spiritual gift unto all is a teacher as everyone on earth is seen teaching in various ways. So everyone has a spiritual gift as can be seen in the book of 1 Corinthians. This is comparable to a lecturer, engineer, Dentist or Doctor who is now a human gold product from another school of thought to help build a better world and leave it in the hands of the next generation. This will be towards meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG’s) and Working out World Bank projects to help the most vulnerable in society. This most vulnerable person is comparable to a sinner who doesn’t know God and needs to accept Christ as Lord and personal saviour and taking through the human gold production process like a clay in potter’s hand. This clay is worked on and taking through several processes towards obtaining a final product with defined quality and beauty for glorification and enrichment in life. This is the human gold production in the direction of the Christian faith and is possibly same in other religious bodies or doctrines like the Moslem, the Buddhist, Traditionalist or idol worshipper etc. A good example explaining this three gold mining concepts and philosophy elaborated above are Newmont Akyem at Abirim (Now Zijin Golden Ridge Limited), the University of Environment and Sustainable Development (UESD) under construction at Bunso and the Church of Pentecost in Eastern Region salvation work. The current state of water resources in the Eastern Region is very bad as all water bodies have been destroyed due to illegal gold mining activities and business in the region. These water bodies are a function and foundation stones when it comes to Christian faith, usage and importance in the human gold production in the direction of the Christian perspective and theological backgrounds. This is can be seen in another paper as written by Danquah (2026). These water resources needs to be worked on for a balance between water on land, water above and water underground in order to protect and conserve the hydrological cycle. A whole school of thought worth probing further in this 2025/2026 under the NDC government.
The Newmont Akyem gold mining project is a project modelled from Newmont Ahafo gold mining project and the current status in terms of legal gold mining business, operation and management in Ghana and worldwide. With this intelligence, model and further work is the current number of gold mining companies like Transeco, BSD, CG Mining, Narawa etc which are to be worked on and elevated to Newmont Akyem at Abirim (now Zijin Golden Ridge Limited) status with pulling and building intelligence (principal/capital or resources). This has raised a lot of interests and concerns after work done and high interest in gold mining business and its operations in the Eastern Region of Ghana. These are worth investigating further with the region as resources are to be protected, managed and kept for now and future generations.
3.5.3 Gold mining business creation coupled with Tribal and Political competition in this 21st Century
Ghana in this 21st Century is seeing a creation around this gold mining intelligence and creation and the major question being asked by all (from all schools of thoughts); which tribe or country is ascribed to this gold mining business in Ghana and worldwide? Or which country worldwide is responsible for this gold mining project or initiating the gold mining business creation intelligence that was done years back and shot into the world to pilot or spearhead the world to today. A justification of gold mining business creation towards a day for another creation to take the next generation or world to another level? Is it the Akwapim man, is it the Ashanti Man, is it the northerner, is it the Fante man, is it the Ewe man, is it the Ga man, is it the Akyem man, is it the Kwahu man, is it the Kyerepong man or is it any other tribe in Ghana. Or is it the British, is it the India man, is it the American man, is the Portuguese, is it the French man, is it the German, is it the man from Burkina Faso or is it any man from another country. Is it from the New Patriotic Party (NPP), is it from the National Democratic Congress (NDC), and is it from the Democrats or from the Republican, or from which political party worldwide?
From research and investigations, the current legal and illegal gold mining activities and impacts in Ghana is a scenario from past creation, activities, actions and inactions when talking about gold mining business on planet earth. Therefore, who is responsible for this creation based on tribal, country or political grounds? And assuming this creation was done 200 years ago and shot to take off or spearhead the world to the next level, to the next generation; where are the creators, implementers and all those who did this hard work? Aren’t they dead and gone with the planet earth or world in place for new creations, inventions, modifications, additions and subtractions for the good will of all? Where is their wealth, riches, greatness, intelligence and contributions to humanity and world development? It is only records in books or internet that can record or talk about such great men dreams, works, dreams and contributions to world creation and development in life. This is what justifies dreams and greatness embedded in books, in the grave and spiritual realms. This is the reason for the Christian faith which believes in spiritual realm operation coupled with physical realm manifestation before God and all mankind for the advancement of the world unto the next generations.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The 21st Century mineral gold and human gold mining business is seeing battling from all angles for justification and validation of ownership and greatness height in world governance and rulership. But if everything is towards the goodwill of humanity and mankind, then the United Nations (one united world composed of different countries with its citizens and having all mankind at will and at heart) Sustainable Development Goals should be the main objective for all towards equitable sharing of resources. The equitable sharing of country or world resources is highly dependent on ability, intelligence level, education level, experience and impact towards country development, world development and greatness. That is the minister of the Gospel and minister in Parliament or governance, the engineer, the scientist, the artist, the security personnel and all schools of thoughts graduates will contribute their parts towards mineral gold and human gold production for the goodwill of all mankind worldwide. The need and importance to know that everyone is important when it talking about impact, effect and world development. And hence a justification for someone to hold just a single match stick at a corner on planet earth towards world development, growth and propagation of the gold mining business worldwide. This will help meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) for the good will and wellbeing of mankind while embarking on World Bank projects in order to meet the financial needs of all.
Acknowledgment
I am grateful to the Almighty God for this Revelational knowledge, ability and strength for this research work on human gold production and mineral gold production in Ghana. I am again thankful to the UNITED NATIONS and WORLD BANK for this opportunity and in serving mankind and the world. I am grateful to His Royal Majesty, Osagyefuo Amoatia Ofori Panin, the king of Abuakwa Traditional Area in the Eastern Region of Ghana for given a consideration to not ‘laying all eggs in one basket’ and also not ‘laying into the basket of the deceiver as it lays outside the basket’. I am again grateful to Osabarima Abeam Brakatu Ofori Aninkrah who is the King of Bunso Traditional Area also in the Eastern Region of Ghana for the opportunity of serving the land, world and for proofreading this research paper. I am again thankful to the people of Nsutam, Osino, Kyebi, Enyiresi, Bepoase, Akyem Tafo, Kukurantumi, Akyem Abirim, Goaso, Kenyasi, Bunso, Koforidua, Accra, Kumasi, Bolgatanga, Wa, Takoradi, the Eastern Region and Ghana as a whole which are study area locations for this political paper. I am again grateful to the Danquah and Gyadu families at Nsutam, Bunso and Bepoase, the Darko and Kissiwa families at Kukurantumi and Kwahu areas all in the Eastern Region of Ghana. I acknowledge the role of my wife, Mrs Rita Abena Darko in my life and my two lovely boys; Gates Odoi Danquah and Michael Darko Danquah. My final gratification goes to my family worldwide as we all strive to work hard in meeting and addressing all the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) collaboratively towards the greatness and goodwill of all mankind worldwide. God bless us all.
References
Danquah, I. O., Amposah, G, 2024, Geotechnical Investigation and Assessment of Modern Building Foundation, Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, India.
Daily writing prompt
What’s a classic book that you think is overrated?
Everything you need to know to build a thriving online teaching career in India — from registration to earning your first ₹10,000 a month.
Introduction
Online teaching jobs in India are currently one of the most searched employment categories, with over 1,35,000 monthly searches for ‘online teaching jobs India’ alone. The demand for qualified tutors is at an all-time high — and platforms like UrbanPro are making it easier than ever to connect with students across the country.
Whether you are a schoolteacher looking to supplement your income, a fresh graduate with subject expertise, or a professional wanting to share your skills — this guide will show you exactly how to start teaching online in India in 2026 and build a sustainable income from it.
Why Online Teaching Is One of the Best Work-From-Home Opportunities in India
The Indian online education market is projected to grow at 28% CAGR through 2030. This means demand for quality tutors is only going to increase. Here is why online teaching makes excellent career sense:
High earning potential: Experienced tutors on UrbanPro earn between ₹500 and ₹3,000+ per hour depending on subject and level.
Flexible schedule: Teach at times that suit you — evenings, weekends, or full-time. You control your calendar.
No commute: Teach from home via laptop or smartphone. All you need is a decent internet connection.
Massive student base: UrbanPro has 55 lakh+ students actively searching for tutors across India’s top cities and Tier-2 towns.
Growing demand in Tier-2/3 cities: Industry data shows Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities are the fastest-growing segments in Indian online education.
Who Can Become an Online Tutor in India?
The eligibility bar for online tutoring in India is broad. You can teach online if you are:
A schoolteacher or college lecturer with subject expertise.
A graduate or postgraduate with strong academic knowledge.
A working professional who can teach skills like Python, Excel, digital marketing, or accounting.
A language expert who can teach Spoken English, French, German, Spanish, or regional languages.
A hobby/arts professional — yoga instructor, dance teacher, guitar player, or painter.
A competitive exam coach for JEE, NEET, UPSC, IELTS, or IBPS.
Step-by-Step: How to Register as a Tutor on UrbanPro
Step 1 — Create Your Tutor Profile
Go to UrbanPro.com and click ‘Signup as a Tutor’. Fill in your name, location, and contact details. Choose the categories you want to teach — Tuition, Languages, IT Courses, Hobby Classes, or Exam Coaching.
Step 2 — Add Your Qualifications and Experience
A strong profile is your most important marketing tool. Make sure you include:
Your educational qualifications (degree, certifications).
Years of teaching experience and subjects taught.
A professional profile photo — profiles with photos get 70% more enquiries.
A well-written bio describing your teaching style and what students can expect.
Step 3 — Set Your Availability and Fees
List your available time slots and set your hourly or monthly fee. Research what other tutors in your subject and level charge — competitive pricing in the beginning can help you build reviews faster.
Step 4 — Respond Quickly to Enquiries
When students or parents send enquiries, respond within a few hours. Fast response rates significantly improve your chances of converting an enquiry into a paid student. UrbanPro sends real-time notifications via app and SMS.
Step 5 — Deliver Outstanding Demo Classes
The demo class is your chance to impress. Prepare a structured 30-minute lesson that showcases your teaching clarity, subject depth, and ability to engage the student. A great demo almost always converts to a paid engagement.
Top Categories in Highest Demand on UrbanPro (2026)
Based on search volume data and UrbanPro’s platform activity, these are the hottest teaching opportunities right now:
Class 10 & 12 Tuition: Boards season drives massive demand — maths, science, English, and commerce subjects are top picks.
JEE / NEET Coaching: Physics, Chemistry, Biology tutors are in extremely high demand year-round.
Spoken English: One of the most searched categories in India with 1,65,000+ monthly searches.
Python & Data Science: IT professionals can earn premium rates — one of the highest CPC categories.
Online Yoga Classes: Post-wellness boom, yoga instructors have a strong, growing audience.
UPSC & SSC Coaching: High-intent students willing to invest in quality coaching — strong earning category.
IELTS Coaching: Huge demand from students planning to study or migrate abroad.
How Much Can You Earn as an Online Tutor in India?
Earnings vary by subject, level, and how many hours you teach. Here are realistic monthly earning benchmarks:
Beginner tutor (5-10 hrs/week): ₹8,000 – ₹20,000 per month.
Part-time tutor (15-20 hrs/week): ₹25,000 – ₹60,000 per month.
Full-time tutor (30+ hrs/week): ₹70,000 – ₹1,50,000+ per month.
Premium subject specialist (JEE/NEET/UPSC): ₹1,00,000 – ₹3,00,000+ per month.
The key to higher earnings is building a strong review profile, becoming a specialist in high-demand subjects, and maintaining consistent quality across all sessions.
Pro Tips to Grow Your Online Teaching Business
Collect student reviews actively — a profile with 10+ positive reviews gets 5x more enquiries than a new profile.
Upload a short video introduction to your profile. Video profiles significantly increase trust and conversion.
Be responsive and professional in all communication with parents and students.
Offer trial or discounted demo sessions initially to build your review base quickly.
Upskill regularly — tutors who teach trending topics like AI basics, data science, or digital skills command premium fees.
Use UrbanPro’s built-in tools — scheduling, payments, and messaging — to keep your workflow professional.
Conclusion
Online teaching in India is not just a side hustle anymore — it is a legitimate, scalable career. With India’s EdTech market growing at 28% CAGR and platforms like UrbanPro giving you direct access to millions of students, the opportunity has never been bigger.
Start by creating your free tutor profile on UrbanPro today. Build your reviews, specialise in a high-demand subject, and watch your teaching income grow month after month. The students are already searching — all you need to do is show up.
Closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) is an important paradigm for sustainable supply chain management. This paper systematically reviews domestic and international literature to summarize the evolution of this field from linear supply chains to the circular economy transition. The study identifies three major trends in CLSC research: a shift from single-link optimization to whole-chain collaborative governance; an evolution from cost-orientation to value co-creation; and a move from deterministic modeling to robust optimization and intelligent decision-making. This paper further analyzes typical cases including new energy vehicle power battery recycling, electronic product remanufacturing, and apparel reverse logistics to reveal the application mechanisms and practical values of CLSC in different industrial contexts. The results show that the effective operation of CLSC requires systematic governance supported by government policies, enterprise strategic coordination, technological innovation, and consumer participation. Future research should focus on cutting-edge topics such as artificial intelligence-enabled intelligent decision-making and supply chain resilience mechanisms.
Keywords: Closed-loop supply chain; Reverse logistics; Power battery recycling; Sustainable development
1. Introduction
Traditional supply chains have long followed the linear model of “extract–make–use–dispose”. While promoting economic development, this model has also led to resource depletion, environmental pollution, and other problems (Guide & Van Wassenhove, 2009). At present, more than 50 million tons of electronic waste are generated globally each year, and large amounts of waste clothing are incinerated or landfilled. Low resource utilization has become a key bottleneck restricting sustainable development.
Against this background, the closed-loop supply chain has emerged. Unlike traditional linear supply chains, CLSC emphasizes the closed-loop flow of materials. After their service life, products are not simply discarded but recycled, remanufactured, redistributed, or safely disposed through reverse logistics networks (Fleischmann et al., 1997). Its core lies in creating “value recovery” opportunities to extend product life cycles through remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling, thereby generating economic benefits while reducing environmental burdens and achieving the unity of commercial and social values.
In recent years, research on CLSC has grown rapidly. Early studies mainly focused on reverse logistics network design and cost optimization, and gradually expanded to multiple directions such as supply chain coordination mechanisms, carbon emission constraint optimization, and intelligent decision support systems (Rodríguez‑Escoto et al., 2024). Notably, the booming new energy vehicle industry has triggered a large-scale wave of decommissioned power batteries, making power battery recycling and echelon utilization a new hotspot in CLSC research. This paper aims to systematically sort out the theoretical evolution of CLSC research, summarize the main research themes and methodological characteristics, and reveal the practical application mechanisms of CLSC through typical case studies. The research provides important references for promoting the theoretical development of CLSC and guiding enterprise practice and decision-making.
2. Literature Review
Research on closed-loop supply chains has evolved from conceptual initiation to systematic improvement. In the early 1990s, scholars began to focus on end-of-life product management and proposed the conceptual framework of “reverse logistics” (Dell, 1998; Rogers & Tibben‑Lembke, 1999). Subsequent studies recognized the need to systematically integrate forward and reverse logistics, giving rise to the concept of closed-loop supply chains. Guide and Van Wassenhove (2009) pointed out that the core of CLSC is “value recovery”, extending product life cycles through remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling.
From the perspective of research evolution, CLSC studies can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage (1990–2000) focused on basic issues such as reverse logistics network design, recycling channel location, and inventory optimization. The second stage (2000–2015) shifted to supply chain coordination mechanisms, profit-sharing contracts, and incentive mechanism design under information asymmetry. The third stage (2015–present), driven by the sustainable development agenda, has focused on carbon emission constraints, green procurement, and ecological design. Meanwhile, the rapid development of artificial intelligence has brought new research opportunities for CLSC (Sahamie et al., 2013).
Regarding research content, scholars have explored the design of recycling networks including topology, node location, and capacity allocation. Due to widespread demand uncertainty and recycling rate fluctuations, robust optimization has attracted attention for its ability to handle uncertain problems (Elsevier, 2026a). Rodríguez‑Escoto et al. (2024) constructed a multi-objective optimization model considering economic cost, environmental impact, and social benefits. They found that introducing environmental objectives increases operating costs by 15%–20% but significantly reduces carbon emissions. In addition, the impacts of policy tools such as carbon subsidies and tax incentives on remanufacturing decisions have been studied, showing that moderate carbon subsidies can encourage enterprises to carry out remanufacturing (Zhang & Li, 2023).
The connection between CLSC and sustainable development has become increasingly close. A World Economic Forum (2025) report states that CLSC is a key path to industrial circular transformation, and leading enterprises can reduce waste emissions by 30%–50% by building closed-loop networks. The application of artificial intelligence has become a new trend, with machine learning, deep learning, and reinforcement learning applied to demand forecasting, inventory optimization, and reverse logistics routing (IEEE, 2024a). Decision support systems can improve operational efficiency by 20%–30% (Elsevier, 2024a). Risk modeling addresses disruptions, quality fluctuations, market changes, and policy adjustments (IEEE, 2024b).
3. Research Methods
This study adopts a combined paradigm of systematic literature review and case analysis.
For the literature review, major databases including Web of Science, Scopus, Elsevier ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar are used. Search keywords include “closed-loop supply chain”, “reverse logistics”, “remanufacturing”, “battery recycling”, and “reverse supply chain”. The inclusion criteria are peer-reviewed journal or conference papers directly related to CLSC published after 2000. Non-Chinese/English papers, purely methodological studies without empirical applications, and full-text-unavailable documents are excluded. Content analysis is used to code the included literature and extract research questions, theoretical perspectives, methodologies, and core findings.
For case analysis, a multiple-case study method is adopted. Three typical cases are selected: new energy vehicle power battery recycling, electronic product remanufacturing, and apparel reverse logistics. Cases are chosen for representativeness, covering different industries and including both mature applications and emerging practices.
The literature review provides theoretical perspectives and research contexts, while case analysis presents application mechanisms and value creation paths in practice. The two approaches verify and complement each other, supporting a systematic review and in-depth understanding of CLSC research.
4. Research Results
4.1 Distribution of Research Themes
Through literature analysis, CLSC research covers six major thematic areas. These themes are interrelated and progressive, forming a complete knowledge system.
Table 1 Distribution of Research Themes in Closed-Loop Supply Chain Studies
Theme
Proportion
Main Content
Network Design and Optimization
25%
Topology, node location, capacity allocation
Coordination Mechanisms
20%
Contract design, profit distribution, information sharing
Remanufacturing Decisions
20%
Feasibility assessment, process routes, quality control
The rapid development of the new energy vehicle industry has led to a large number of decommissioned power batteries, making their treatment increasingly prominent. Power batteries contain scarce metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, so recycling has important economic and environmental value.
Representative enterprises such as CATL and BYD have established full-life-cycle power battery management systems. Brunp Recycling under CATD has built a closed-loop system: “battery production–use–echelon utilization–recycling”, achieving a recovery rate of over 99% for nickel, cobalt, and manganese. This model reduces raw material costs and environmental pollution, verifying the practical value of CLSC in the power battery field.
4.2.2 Electronic Product Remanufacturing
Electronic product remanufacturing is one of the most commercialized CLSC fields. Enterprises such as IBM and Dell have remanufacturing programs that refurbish retired enterprise servers and sell them at a discount to small and medium-sized enterprises. Compared with new manufacturing, remanufactured servers reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions by about 50%. A core challenge is product quality uncertainty: remaining life and condition vary widely, requiring strict quality assessment and pricing.
4.2.3 Apparel Reverse Logistics
The apparel industry is a typical linear economy sector and an important testing ground for CLSC innovation. Fast fashion brands such as H&M, Zara, and Uniqlo have launched clothing recycling programs where consumers can exchange old clothes for discount coupons. However, actual closed-loop effects are limited: most recycled clothes are exported to secondhand markets or used as industrial rags, with less than 1% recycled into new fibers. This shows that building recycling channels does not equal real closed-loop realization.
High-end outdoor brands such as Patagonia have explored high-value closed-loop models. Its “Worn Wear” program recycles, professionally refurbishes, and offers trade-ins. Refurbished products are sold at 70%–80% of the original price, effectively extending product life cycles. This case indicates that successful CLSC requires not only recycling networks but also deep value connections with consumers to achieve both commercial and environmental benefits through product servitization.
4.3 Summary
Based on literature and case analysis, three core findings are obtained. First, CLSC research has formed a relatively complete theoretical system, shifting from single-link optimization to whole-chain collaborative governance, reflecting deeper systematic understanding. Second, CLSC shows differentiated characteristics and diverse values across industries, requiring industry-specific design. Third, effective CLSC operation demands multi-stakeholder coordination: government policy support, enterprise strategic coordination, technological innovation, and consumer participation are all indispensable. Systematic thinking is key to understanding and advancing CLSC.
5. Discussion
The literature review reveals three theoretical contributions of CLSC research: constructing a CLSC analytical framework that integrates forward and reverse supply chains from a systems perspective; developing supply chain coordination theory with rich contexts of multiple uncertainties; and expanding sustainable supply chain management theory by incorporating environmental externalities into decision-making, leading to carbon-constrained supply chain optimization and green supply chain performance evaluation.
The findings have important practical implications. For enterprises, CLSC has become a strategic tool for competitive advantage. They should actively apply AI, IoT, and blockchain to improve CLSC intelligence. For supply chain governance, reasonable profit-sharing mechanisms and long-term stable reverse logistics networks are needed. Government support is critical: carbon subsidies, tax incentives, and extended producer responsibility can effectively promote CLSC practices, but balance between environmental goals and economic efficiency is required.
This study has limitations: qualitative literature evaluation involves subjectivity; it focuses on academic literature and does not fully include industry reports and enterprise practices. Future CLSC research can focus on: AI-enabled intelligent decision-making and deep reinforcement learning for dynamic optimization; supply chain resilience and risk management under emergencies; digital CLSC with digital twin and industrial internet for full-process visualization and intelligent scheduling.
6. Conclusion
Through systematic literature review and case analysis, this paper sorts out the theoretical evolution, research themes, and methodological characteristics of CLSC research. It covers network design, coordination mechanisms, remanufacturing decisions, recycling optimization, green transformation, and intelligent decision-making, forming a complete theoretical system. Three major trends in CLSC research reflect the deepening understanding of its complexity. Cases such as power battery recycling, electronic product remanufacturing, and apparel reverse logistics show that CLSC presents differentiated features and diverse values in different industrial scenarios. Enterprises should select suitable CLSC business models and operational strategies according to their industry characteristics and resource endowments.
With the promotion of circular economy and sustainable development goals, CLSC will play an increasingly important role in corporate strategy and industrial policy. Especially under the rapid development of artificial intelligence, the effective integration of intelligent technology and CLSC operations will be an important direction for theoretical research and practical exploration.
References
Dell. (1998). The defragmentation of corporate America [Corporate report]. Dell Inc.
Elsevier. (2024a). Decision support systems for a resilient and sustainable closed loop supply chain. Decision Support Systems, 114182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2024.114182
Elsevier. (2026b). Coordination in closed‑loop supply chains with remanufacturing: A bibliometric and cluster analysis. Procedia CIRP. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2026.01.045
Elsevier. (2026c). Optimizing pricing, greening, recycling, and emission reduction in a closed‑loop supply chain. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2026.01.087
Fleischmann, M., Bloemhof‑Ruwaard, J. M., Dekker, R., van der Laan, E., van Nunen, J. A., & Van Wassenhove, L. N. (1997). Quantitative models for reverse logistics: A review. European Journal of Operational Research, 103(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377‑2217(97)00230‑0
Guide, V. D. R., & Van Wassenhove, L. N. (2009). Closed‑loop supply chains: An introduction to the feature issue (Part 1). Production and Operations Management, 18(5), 481–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937‑5956.2009.01033.x
IEEE. (2024a). Exploring the role of artificial intelligence in closed‑loop supply chain. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2024.3387215
IEEE. (2024b). Risk modeling framework for strategic and operational intervention to enhance the effectiveness of a closed‑loop supply chain. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2024.3356789
Rodríguez‑Escoto, M., et al. (2024). A multi‑objective sustainable closed‑loop supply chain network design with robust optimization. International Transactions in Operational Research. https://doi.org/10.1111/itor.13345
Rogers, D. S., & Tibben‑Lembke, R. S. (1999). Going backwards: Reverse logistics trends and practices [Industry report]. Reverse Logistics Executive Council.
Sahamie, R., et al. (2013). Transdisciplinary research in sustainable operations: An application to closed‑loop supply chains. Business Strategy and the Environment, 22(4), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1756
World Economic Forum. (2025). Circular transformation of industries 2025: Leveraging closed‑loop supply chains for sustainable development [Industry report]. WEF Publications.
Zhang, W., & Li, Q. (2023). Construction and empirical test of remanufacturing closed-loop supply chain model considering carbon subsidy. Chinese Journal of Management Science, 31(5), 123–134.
Wang, F., & Liu, C. (2022). Research on recycling and pricing strategy of new energy vehicle power batteries in closed-loop supply chain. Systems Engineering — Theory & Practice, 42(8), 2158–2172.
Daily writing prompt
What’s a thing you were completely obsessed with as a kid?
The European crypto industry is entering a new regulatory era as the Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) framework moves closer to full implementation. For many digital asset companies, the challenge is no longer whether regulation is coming, but how quickly they can adapt their businesses to meet the new requirements.
Against this backdrop, LegalBison has introduced a new research series aimed at helping crypto operators better understand the realities of MiCA compliance and licensing across the European Union.
According to Reuters, LegalBison partnered with Bitcoin.com News to launch “MiCA Decoded,” a 12-part editorial series focused on the operational and legal aspects of the EU’s crypto regulations.
The initiative combines data from public CASP registers, information published by the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA), and LegalBison’s own experience working with crypto licensing applications in multiple jurisdictions. Rather than offering general commentary on regulation, the series focuses on practical details that companies often misunderstand during the licensing process.
One of the key topics covered is the structure of the Crypto-Asset Service Provider (CASP) authorization system. The research points out that although more than 170 entities appear in the register, only a limited number currently have authorization to operate centralized cryptocurrency exchanges. This highlights the level of scrutiny regulators are applying to applications and the growing importance of compliance preparation.
The series also examines how MiCA timelines work in practice. While many companies rely on simplified estimates for approval periods, the actual operational process can take significantly longer depending on the jurisdiction, internal documentation, and communication with regulators. LegalBison argues that misunderstanding these timelines is one of the most common reasons crypto businesses experience delays or unsuccessful applications.
Another important issue discussed in the research is the preparation of crypto asset white papers. Under MiCA, projects must provide detailed documentation explaining the structure, purpose, and risks associated with their digital assets. The series notes that many founders still rely on informal or incomplete formats that may not satisfy regulatory expectations. As compliance standards become stricter, documentation quality is becoming a critical factor in the authorization process.
Jurisdictional strategy is another major focus. Although MiCA creates a unified framework across the EU, implementation can still vary between member states. Different countries may offer varying processing speeds, regulatory approaches, and operational advantages for crypto businesses. The research explores how companies evaluate these factors when deciding where to establish their licensing operations.
The growing attention around MiCA reflects a broader shift in the digital asset industry. Regulators are increasingly treating crypto businesses similarly to traditional financial institutions, especially in areas such as anti-money laundering controls, customer verification, operational transparency, and consumer protection. As a result, compliance is becoming part of long-term business strategy rather than a temporary legal obligation.
Industry analysts believe that companies capable of adapting early may gain a competitive advantage as the market matures. Firms with approved licenses are likely to benefit from stronger banking relationships, improved credibility with institutional partners, and broader access to European customers. At the same time, businesses that fail to meet the requirements could face operational restrictions or lose access to key markets.
LegalBison specializes in legal and regulatory services for fintech and digital asset companies. The firm supports projects with licensing strategy, regulatory architecture, AML and KYC compliance programs, and communication with authorities in multiple jurisdictions. Its operational network spans more than 50 countries, with offices in locations including Warsaw, Tallinn, Panama City, Manama, and Kuala Lumpur.
As the implementation deadlines approach, demand for regulatory guidance across the crypto sector is expected to continue growing. Educational initiatives such as “MiCA Decoded” reflect the industry’s increasing need for practical information based on real licensing experience rather than theoretical interpretation alone.
Daily writing prompt
What’s a classic book that you think is overrated?
As online trading continues to expand in Nigeria, more users are evaluating international platforms that promise access to global markets. Among them, IQ Option remains one of the most discussed names, raising questions about both legitimacy and security.
As covered by Tribune Online, the platform has been operating for over a decade and serves millions of users across different regions. While longevity can indicate stability, traders still need to assess how the platform functions and what safeguards are actually in place.
From a security perspective, IQ Option follows standard industry protocols. It operates under SKY LADDER LLC, registered in Antigua and Barbuda, and implements SSL encryption to protect data transmission. Account-level protection includes two-factor authentication, which adds an extra verification step during login. Another structural element is the separation of client funds from company funds—this is intended to prevent misuse and ensure that user balances are not tied to operational expenses.
Functionality plays a major role in evaluating platform safety. IQ Option offers a multi-asset environment where users can trade forex pairs, cryptocurrencies, stocks via CFDs, commodities, indices, and options. Having all instruments accessible within one interface simplifies the trading process, especially for users who want to diversify without switching platforms. The system also includes analytical tools such as RSI, MACD, and Bollinger Bands, which help traders interpret price movements and make more informed decisions.
One of the more notable features is how the platform structures risk. Unlike margin-based systems where losses can exceed deposits, IQ Option limits the maximum loss to the amount placed on a trade. This means traders cannot accumulate debt through trading activity. Additional tools enhance this control:
Stop-loss orders automatically close positions to limit downside risk
Take-profit settings secure gains once a target level is reached
Early closure allows traders to exit positions before expiration
Price alerts notify users when specific levels are reached
These mechanisms are built into the platform rather than offered as optional add-ons, which contributes to a more controlled trading environment.
Despite these safeguards, user feedback reveals some recurring concerns. Most complaints are related to withdrawal timing, particularly when accounts are undergoing verification. This process—commonly known as KYC (Know Your Customer)—requires identity and address confirmation before funds can be released. While standard across financial platforms, it can create delays if users are unprepared. Another common issue involves bonus terms, where traders activate promotions without fully understanding the conditions attached.
The onboarding process itself is relatively straightforward. New users can begin with a demo account that includes virtual funds, allowing them to explore the interface risk-free. Transitioning to a live account requires a minimum deposit, and Nigerian users can fund accounts through local payment systems. Withdrawals are processed back to local bank accounts, typically within several working days depending on verification status.
It is also important to consider regulatory context. IQ Option does not hold a Nigerian SEC license, which means it operates without local regulatory oversight. For some traders, this may be a significant factor when evaluating trust and accountability. Others may prioritize functionality, accessibility, and global presence instead.
In practical terms, the platform’s safety depends not only on its technical infrastructure but also on how it is used. Trading inherently involves financial risk, and no system can eliminate the possibility of loss. Tools and protections can reduce exposure, but they cannot replace strategy, discipline, or market understanding.
Overall, IQ Option presents itself as a legitimate trading platform with established security measures and operational history. For Nigerian traders, the key is to approach it with realistic expectations: use the demo environment first, understand all terms—especially bonuses—and ensure full account verification before initiating withdrawals.
Daily writing prompt
What are the biggest benefits of minimalist living?
The cryptocurrency sector is continuing to evolve from a niche financial market into a broader institutional ecosystem, and with that growth comes increasing attention to infrastructure security. As more enterprises and financial organizations integrate digital assets into their operations, independently verified cybersecurity standards are becoming a critical factor when selecting crypto payment and custody providers.
As noted by CoinMarketCap Community, CryptoProcessing by Coinspaid has achieved CCSS Level 3 certification for its Institutional-Grade Key Management and Wallet Infrastructure. The certification is the highest level available under the Cryptocurrency Security Standard framework developed by the CryptoCurrency Certification Consortium (C4).
The independent audit was conducted by Hacken, a cybersecurity and blockchain infrastructure auditor approved by C4. The assessment started in the fourth quarter of 2025 and reviewed the company’s Full System operational environment.
CCSS, short for Cryptocurrency Security Standard, is a framework created specifically for digital asset infrastructure. Unlike traditional cybersecurity certifications that focus mainly on general IT systems, CCSS evaluates the operational and technical processes directly involved in cryptocurrency management. This includes how companies generate, store, back up, and protect cryptographic keys, as well as how transactions are authorized and monitored.
The framework is widely recognized within the crypto industry because it addresses the unique risks associated with blockchain-based financial systems. Cryptocurrency infrastructure depends heavily on secure key management since private keys control access to digital assets. If these keys are compromised, funds can potentially be lost permanently. As a result, CCSS places significant emphasis on operational discipline, governance procedures, and layered security controls.
Level 3 is considered the most demanding tier within the CCSS framework. To achieve it, organizations must demonstrate mature infrastructure management, formalized operational policies, and advanced protection mechanisms across the entire system environment. Certification at this level indicates that security practices are integrated into everyday operations rather than implemented only as isolated safeguards.
During the audit, Hacken reviewed multiple areas of CryptoProcessing’s infrastructure. The assessment covered key generation processes, wallet creation procedures, secure key storage systems, backup protocols, access management controls, transaction authorization workflows, logging and monitoring mechanisms, and incident response strategies related to key compromise scenarios.
According to the findings, CryptoProcessing applies governance standards and operational procedures aligned with recognized crypto-native security practices. The review also confirmed that the company maintains structured risk management policies across its infrastructure environment.
The growing importance of certifications like CCSS reflects broader changes taking place across the digital asset industry. Enterprise clients and institutional investors are no longer evaluating providers only on transaction speed or payment functionality. Security transparency and independently validated infrastructure have become equally important, particularly for businesses managing large transaction volumes or operating under strict compliance requirements.
Independent audits can also simplify due diligence processes for financial institutions, banks, and corporate partners considering cryptocurrency integrations. In many cases, organizations entering the crypto sector must demonstrate that their partners follow recognized operational and cybersecurity standards before cooperation can proceed.
Another important factor is regulation. Governments and financial authorities around the world are introducing more detailed frameworks for digital asset oversight. In Europe, regulations such as MiCA and DORA are increasing expectations related to operational resilience, cybersecurity governance, and infrastructure reliability. Companies with independently verified security frameworks may find it easier to align with these regulatory standards.
Max Krupyshev, Executive Leader at CryptoProcessing, described the certification as a meaningful milestone for the company. According to him, CCSS Level 3 requires disciplined operations, resilient security controls, and formalized governance structures across the entire infrastructure environment. He noted that the certification validates the company’s operational maturity and reinforces trust for businesses relying on secure digital asset operations at scale.
CryptoProcessing by Coinspaid stated that it plans to continue investing in technology and security improvements to support businesses adopting cryptocurrency payments globally. The company sees the certification as another step toward delivering dependable and future-ready digital payment infrastructure for enterprise and institutional clients.
Hacken, the auditing company behind the assessment, is recognized within the blockchain cybersecurity sector and employs multiple specialists holding active CCSS Auditor certifications. Industry experts note that the increasing adoption of infrastructure audits and security certifications demonstrates how the crypto sector is gradually moving toward operational standards similar to those expected in traditional financial services.
As institutional adoption of digital assets continues expanding worldwide, independently verified security frameworks are likely to become even more influential in shaping the future of crypto payment infrastructure.
Daily writing prompt
What’s a thing you were completely obsessed with as a kid?
CHUKWUKA, E. J., & MOEMEKE, C. D. (2026). The Strategic Effect of Entrepreneurial Education on Nigerian Economic Development. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(2), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/9
Ernest Jebolise CHUKWUKA (PhD)
Department of Entrepreneurship and Business Innovation
Faculty of Management Sciences
University of Delta, Agbor
ernest.chukwuka@unidel.edu.ng
Clara Dumebi MOEMEKE (Ph.D)
Department of Science Education
Faculty of Education,
University of Delta, Agbor
Orcid no: 0000 0003- 1848-0623
Abstract
This explorative study examined the effect of Entrepreneurial Education on Nigerian Economic Development. The main objective is to ascertain the exact nature of connection between entrepreneurial education and Nigeria’s economic growth. The study adopted systematic review methodology called thematic. Papers were selected from multiple databases thematically. Content analysis was used to examine the gathered data. Condensing lengthy textual information into fewer categories in accordance with clear coding standards is accomplished through the methodical and repeatable process of content analysis. The results demonstrated a substantial relationship or correlation between entrepreneurial education and Nigeria’s economic development. This implies that entrepreneurship education in Nigerian colleges has sparked a desire to capitalize on numerous business chances for Nigeria’s economic development. According to the findings, well-taught entrepreneurship courses that equip students with entrepreneurial knowledge and skills would encourage them to launch their own companies and contribute to Nigeria’s economic expansion. Determining the elements that affect economic development is one of the primary objectives of contemporary economics. The impact of entrepreneurship on a nation’s economy is enormous. This is known to economists and decision-makers. In actuality, entrepreneurship is now viewed as a catalyst for the growth and advancement of productive endeavors in all spheres of global economic life. The study concludes that there is a stronger correlation between economic growth and entrepreneurial education than with foreign assistance which contends that entrepreneurial education is essential for unlocking economic growth, generating employment, and lowering poverty, among other things, in developing countries like Nigeria. The study recommends, among other things, that entrepreneurship skills centers be set up in both rural and urban areas so that business owners can acquire new skills that will make them more productive and increase their contribution to economic development and growth.
Entrepreneurship education seeks to provide learners with the knowledge, skills and motivation to encourage entrepreneurial success in a variety of settings. Variations of entrepreneurship education are offered at all levels of schooling from primary or secondary schools through graduate university programmes. It is focused on realization of opportunities where management education is focused on the best way to operate existing hierarchies (Chukwuka & Nwaka 2026). Entrepreneurship Education focuses on developing understanding and capacity for pursuit, of entrepreneurial behaviours, skills and attributes in widely different contexts. It can be presented as being accessible to everyone and not just the province of ambitious, high-achieving businesspeople.
The inclination to act in an entrepreneurial manner is not unique to any one person. A person’s capacity to exhibit and develop entrepreneurial behaviors, abilities, and traits will vary. All students should be exposed to entrepreneurship education because these behaviors may be learnt, developed, and practiced (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, 2010). Beyond their use in commercial endeavors, entrepreneurial abilities and mindsets serve society. The development of new and efficient Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) should be viewed as crucial to the creation of a healthy African economy since the business sector is the dynamic mechanism underpinning every successful economy.
There seems to be no nation in the world that is not directly or indirectly impacted by the problems associated with youth unemployment, making it an epidemic that is quickly turning into a worldwide disaster. In 2020, the worldwide youth unemployment rate was 15.28% due to the fact that over 621 million people between the ages of 15 and 24 do not have gainful job (International Labour Organization (ILO) 2022). The situation is worse in Nigeria, where 21.72 million young people between the ages of 15 and 35 are unemployed. By the end of 2022, the country’s youth unemployment rate is expected to reach 53% (National Bureau of Statistics 2021). Nigeria’s rapidly growing population, which is expected to reach over 840 million by 2050 (United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2017) and is primarily made up of young people, is supposed to be the country’s greatest asset in terms of providing labor for industrialization. Sadly, this growing youth population has created a significant social burden for the government, the world, and even the young people themselves. If immediate action is not taken, the current situation has shown that this exponential expansion is more of a time bomb than an opportunity. Like other emerging nations, Nigeria faces a growing unemployment rate that has led to a number of social issues, including internet fraud, banditry, terrorism, kidnapping, and ritual killings.
Raising young employment has been attributed to the nation’s inadequate educational system. Education stakeholders have long bemoaned the regrettable tendency of postsecondary schools producing graduates who wander the streets every day looking for employment that don’t exist (Gabadeen & Raimi 2016). The Federal Ministry of Education (FME) incorporated entrepreneurship education into the curricula of universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education through their regulatory agencies, the National Universities Commission (NUC), National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), and National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), in an effort to address this issue by turning graduates of Nigerian higher education into job creators rather than lifelong job seekers. With effect from the 2007–2008 academic year, entrepreneurship education was formally added to the curricula of higher education institutions (ILO, 2010).
The degree of development of a country’s human resources, as well as in the areas of social integration, psychological stability, functional education, and political stability, are used to determine its wealth. Any country that reaches this level of development will undoubtedly eradicate poverty, unemployment, and corruption and advance industrialization, peace, security, human and capital development, a sufficient supply of food, and fair wealth distribution among its people. This supports the ideas expressed by Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, which is commonly known by its abbreviated title The Wealth of Nations.
Incorporating entrepreneurship education into Nigerian university curricula was intended to equip students with the skills necessary to succeed in the workforce and contribute to society once they graduated (Davwet, Damar, Goyit, & Kajang, 2019). This goal is reflected in Nigerian institutions’ strategic plans, which provide undergraduates with the chance to become entrepreneurs and lifelong learners. Entrepreneurship education was created to give undergraduates from a range of fields the entrepreneurial skills they would need to own requirements of life, be human, and be free from societal servanthood (Edokpolor, 2020). Undergraduates’ ability to obtain independence and the requirements of life is described in the literature on sustainability and economic development (Mensah, 2019).
Statement of Problem and the Justification of the Study
In Nigeria, entrepreneurial education has been extensively advocated as an essential strategy for addressing enduring issues like high young unemployment, sluggish industrial growth, poor levels of innovation, and an excessive reliance on crude oil earnings. Nigerian universities, polytechnics, and other postsecondary institutions have responded by establishing entrepreneurship centers and courses, frequently making them mandatory for students in all subject areas. However, despite these efforts, the nation still has a sizable unproductive informal sector and high rates of underemployment and unemployment, particularly among graduates.
This circumstance calls into question the true strategic impact of entrepreneurship education on Nigeria’s economic growth. In particular, there is no empirical knowledge about whether the way entrepreneurial education is currently designed, taught, and delivered in Nigeria truly results in quantifiable outcomes like the development of businesses, the creation of jobs, the capacity for innovation, and GDP contribution. Few studies examine how entrepreneurial education affects more general development indicators like employment structure, economic diversification, and poverty reduction; most concentrate on students’ attitudes or intentions. Because of this gap, it is challenging for educators and policymakers to assess whether current entrepreneurship programs are useful as tools for development or require substantial revision.
Additionally, there seems to be a mismatch between the skills taught in many Nigerian entrepreneurship programs and the real-world demands of the business environment, such as technology change, infrastructure deficiencies, regulatory restrictions, and financial access. As a result, graduates could learn about entrepreneurship theoretically without the skills, networks, or ecosystems needed to build long-term businesses that can spur economic growth. This discrepancy implies that entrepreneurship education’s strategic potential as a catalyst for national development is not being fully realized. The lack of data on how and to what degree entrepreneurial education, as it is currently organized and applied in Nigeria, strategically influences important aspects of economic development like job creation, innovation, enterprise expansion, and structural economic transformation is the issue this study attempts to solve. Without this proof, entrepreneurship education may continue to be funded and expanded without clear evidence of its developmental benefit or recommendations for enhancing its efficacy.
The urgent need for evidence-based solutions to Nigeria’s high youth unemployment, which has been recognized as a significant socioeconomic issue and a cause of instability and insecurity, justifies this study. The idea that entrepreneurial education might provide young people the mindset and abilities to make their own jobs instead of relying just on wage employment is frequently put forth. Determining if this widely held belief is true in the Nigerian context will require assessing its strategic impact on economic development (Bessant& Tidd 2011).
Policymakers and educational planners who devote significant funds to entrepreneurial initiatives at the federal, state, and institutional levels should also take note of the study. The research can direct changes in curriculum design, teaching strategies, and support systems like incubation, mentorship, and financial access if it makes clear how entrepreneurial education helps (or doesn’t help) employment, innovation, and economic diversity. This will make it possible to allocate scarce public and private funds to entrepreneurial education programs that have clear developmental benefits.
The report provides a foundation for universities and other educational institutions to match entrepreneurial education with national economic priorities, like boosting MSMEs, encouraging a knowledge-based economy, and advancing non-oil sectors. The study can help enhance course content, experiential learning, industry relationships, and evaluation techniques by determining which elements of entrepreneurial education are most closely associated with economic outcomes (Chukwuka et al 2026b). This will increase the relevance and efficacy of programs. Lastly, by examining entrepreneurship education’s wider strategic impact on economic development indicators in a developing-country setting, the study adds to the body of scholarly literature by going beyond attitudinal and intention-based studies. A targeted study helps close a conceptual and empirical gap and offers a model for comparable investigations in other African economies because current research on Nigeria is still developing and frequently dispersed.
This study main objective is to ascertain the exact effect of Entrepreneurial Education on Nigerian Economic Development.
Literature Review
The Concept of Entrepreneurship Education
Several authors have attempted to conceptualize entrepreneurship education. For example, entrepreneurship education is defined by Okifo and Ayo (2010) as the kind of education intended to alter the recipient’s orientation and attitude while acquiring the skills and information necessary to establish and run a business organization. Osuala (2010) defined entrepreneurship education as a program or component of a program that equips people to start and run small businesses, including franchise operations, for the purpose of carrying out all business functions related to a product or service with an emphasis on social responsibilities, legal requirements, and risks for the sake of profit involved in the conduct of private business enterprises. The primary goal of entrepreneurship education, according to Suleiman (2010), is to prepare young people to be responsible, enterprising individuals who become entrepreneurs or entrepreneurial thinkers by providing them with real-world learning experiences that allow them to take risks, manage results, and learn from the outcome.
The process of teaching people to identify and cultivate essential entrepreneurial traits, abilities, and behaviors is known as entrepreneurship education. Since these abilities are necessary in the workplace, everyday activities, household management, and society at large, entrepreneurial skills like creativity, innovation, quick decision-making, and risk-taking are applicable to everyone, not just those who want to launch and expand their own business. As the saying goes, learning never ends, and entrepreneurship education should never end either (Chukwuka et al 2026). Successful business owners never stop learning during the course of their venture or business. Adesulu (2010) asserts that in order for Nigeria to achieve its Vision 20:2020 objectives, the nation must not just teach entrepreneurship in schools but also be ready to put it into practice. Another meaning of entrepreneurship education is someone who develops original concepts and transforms them into successful enterprises. Adesulu continues, “The act of combining creative and inventive ideas with organizational management abilities in order to combine people, money, and resources to solve a recognized need and create profit” is the definition of entrepreneurship. According to
Egunjimi (2012), the goals of entrepreneurship education are as follows: To provide adolescents with practical knowledge that will help them become independent and self-employed. Give the young graduates enough training so they can find new business prospects with creativity and innovation, to act as an accelerator of development and economic growth. Provide graduates of postsecondary institutions with sufficient risk management skills to ensure that certain bearings are viable. Migration from rural to urban areas has decreased. To lower the high poverty rate. Make jobs. Give the recent graduates adequate training and assistance so they can start a career in small and medium-sized businesses. To instill in young people and adults the spirit of perseverance that will allow them to persevere in any business endeavor they take on. Make the shift from a traditional to a modern industrial economy seamless.
Economic development is a primary concern for any competent government. It is a key campaign commitment during electioneering campaigns and has a prominent place in its growth strategy. Since education is widely seen as the cornerstone of progress, many governments in developing countries have focused on it as a way to achieve national development. A nation with educated citizens is more likely to see national progress than one with uneducated citizens. This is based on the idea that educated citizens are not only creative and productive but also socially and culturally tolerant people who apply moral and ethical principles in their daily lives with an entrepreneurial spirit that helps to create jobs and lessen poverty among the hordes of young people. Because of their beliefs and leadership abilities, they support political, economic, and technical advancement. Since man’s divine creation, education has been used largely as a reformative process in the sustainable development of a dynamic society for shared wealth and citizen harmony (Awofala & Sopekan, 2013; Oyekan, 2015).
The relationship between economic development and entrepreneurship
The following are some ways that entrepreneurship aids in economic development: 1) Balanced regional development: The growth of commerce and industry benefits the public in many ways, such as transportation, health, education, and entertainment. Development is limited to the cities where industry are concentrated. Due to greater rivalry in and around cities, there is a rapid development when new entrepreneurs thrive at a faster rate and are motivated to start their firms in smaller towns far from large cities. This aids in the advancement of underdeveloped regions.
2) Dispersal of economic power: As a result of industrial growth, economic power is typically concentrated in a small number of hands. One effect of this concentration of power in a small number of hands is monopolies. The growth of numerous entrepreneurs contributes to the population’s distribution of economic power. Consequently, it helps lessen monopoly’s detrimental effects.
3) Creating jobs: The country is worried about rising unemployment, especially among educated people. There are hardly 5% to 10% of unemployed people who can find work. There are two ways that entrepreneurs generate employment: directly and indirectly. Through their self-employment as entrepreneurs and the creation of many manufacturing facilities, they directly and indirectly create work for millions of others.
Therefore, the best way to fight unemployment is through entrepreneurship. 4) Innovation: An entrepreneur is a person who is always searching for new chances. He not only mixes the factors of production but also introduces new ideas and combinations of factors. He is always trying to implement more advanced techniques for producing goods and services. An entrepreneur advances economic growth through invention.
5) National income: National revenue is derived from both domestic and foreign goods and services. Both domestic consumption and export demand are the goals of the produced goods and services. As the population grows and living standards rise, so does domestic demand.
Export demand increases to meet the demands of growing imports for a number of reasons. An increasing number of entrepreneurs are required to meet the growing demand for goods and services. Consequently, entrepreneurship increases the country’s income. 6) Higher living standards: Increasing economic growth rates requires entrepreneurs. Depending on their demands, entrepreneurs can produce goods at a lower cost and provide the community with high-quality commodities at a lower cost. Customers can buy more items to meet their needs as commodity prices decline. In this way, they will be able to improve the standard of living for the populace.
Ogundele and Egunjimi (2017) list the following additional advantages of entrepreneurial education for the Nigerian economy:
a) Employment opportunities: There are more job openings as a result of entrepreneurial activity. Businesses need people to work for them. Additionally, entrepreneurship reduces the number of job seekers on the streets searching for open opportunities. Unemployment and idleness are other contributing factors to the high incidence of crime and violence among young people and on the streets. b) Efficient use of natural resources: Entrepreneurship creates value for the economy and the entrepreneur by transferring resources from less productive to more productive areas. Nigeria’s vast natural and human resources are effectively used.
c) Equitable distribution of income and wealth: More entrepreneurial activity in rural areas generates more money, which spreads the economic prosperity of both communities and individuals. The rate of rural-urban migration will decrease as a result of more villages having more employment possibilities. In rural places, entrepreneurship creates new jobs, boosts local incomes, and enhances the standard of living. These kinds of entrepreneurial endeavors successfully link rural villages with larger urban areas. A nation’s increasing productivity and capital accumulation are further benefits of entrepreneurship education. In conclusion, the expansion of entrepreneurship is essential to the nation’s economic development. The role of entrepreneurship development can be summed up as follows: entrepreneurship is a cause of economic development, and economic development is a product of entrepreneurship (Kressel & Lento 2012).
According to Ogundele and Ogunjimi (2017), entrepreneurship has been a potent engine of economic growth and wealth creation for many developing nations, and it is essential for enhancing the quantity, diversity, and quality of employment prospects for the impoverished. Compared to other natural resources, which can run out, it is a better source of competitive advantage since it has several multiplier effects on the economy, encourages innovation, and encourages investment in people. Entrepreneurs launch new companies, economic sectors, and commercial endeavors.
They provide goods and services for society, develop new technologies, enhance or reduce the cost of outputs, generate jobs for others, and generate foreign exchange by increasing exports or replacing imports. With over 10% of the population living on less than $2 (two dollars) per day and 54% surviving on less than $1 per day, entrepreneurial activities have the potential to bring Nigeria out of poverty provided they are effectively carried out and supported by active government policies and infrastructures. Even while graduates who choose to pursue professional professions can find white-collar work, developing entrepreneurial abilities is also more practical. This is a way to generate more revenue for self-sufficiency (Adesulu, 2010).
Economic Development
In general, economic development refers to the persistent, coordinated efforts of communities and governments that raise the standard of living and economic well-being of a particular region. The quantitative and qualitative shifts in the economy are another name for economic progress. Human capital development, vital infrastructure, regional competitiveness, environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health, safety, literacy, and other activities are just a few of the topics that these measures may cover. Economic growth is not the same as economic development. Economic growth is a result of increased GDP and market productivity, whereas economic development is a governmental intervention effort aimed at improving people’s economic and social well-being (Abefe-Balogun & Nwankpa 2012).
As a result, “economic growth is one aspect of the process of economic development,” as noted by Amartya (1983). The method and policies that a country uses to enhance the social, political, and economic well-being of its citizens are included in the scope of economic development. According to Mansell and When (1998), economic growth—that is, improvements in per capita income—and the achievement of a quality of living comparable to that of industrialized nations have been considered components of economic development since the Second World War. Another way to think of economic development is as a static theory that describes the condition of an economy at a particular point in time (Awofala & Sopekan 2013).
Development and economic growth are two different concepts. It involves more than simply the economy growing (in terms of increased output). It entails increasing real per capita income and significantly improving every area of the economy (Dungrit, Bahago, & Gotip, 2022). Actually, there are numerous facets of economic development that cooperate with each other. It has to do with how far human potential has advanced, how well a nation’s citizens live, how robust and resilient its institutions are, and how effectively society is functioning overall.
Methodology
The literature review methodology used is thematic. Papers were selected from multiple databases thematically. The recentness and relevant theme were used to arrange the papers. On the other hand, similar but older studies were refuted just like the unrelated ones. As a result, the remaining recent articles that are relevant to the topic of this work were examined closely, and any flaws or deficiencies were noted. Recommendations for the examined papers were appropriate.
Content analysis was used to examine the gathered data. Condensing lengthy textual information into fewer categories in accordance with clear coding standards is accomplished through the methodical and repeatable process of content analysis. It entails looking for recurrent themes, patterns, and trends in written, visual, or auditory content (Krippendorff, 2019). Content analysis makes it possible to transform qualitative historical data into a structured framework for comparative study and interpretation in historical research.
Results and Discussion
The relationship between entrepreneurial education and Nigeria’s economic development was investigated in this study. The findings showed a strong correlation or connection between Nigeria’s economic development and entrepreneurial education. According to Okuneye, Idowu, and Dansu (2009), this suggests that entrepreneurship education in Nigerian universities has sparked a desire to take advantage of various entrepreneurship prospects for Nigeria’s economic development. The results suggest that well-taught entrepreneurship courses that give students entrepreneurial knowledge and skills would inspire them to start their own businesses and support Nigeria’s economic growth.
The study confirmed that Due to their various economies, both established nations like the United States and growing nations like Nigeria offer greater opportunities for entrepreneurs and are currently the focus of both domestic and international firms. In emerging nations like Nigeria, there is a clear correlation between economic growth and entrepreneurship. Consequently, it might be an answer to Nigeria’s financial issues. It is well known that entrepreneurship fosters skill development, creative thinking, product development, marketing, leadership development, and wealth creation. This leads to the development of successful micro, small, and medium-sized businesses (MSMEs) that produce profitable jobs, generate wealth, give women opportunities, diversify the economy, and ultimately expand it. The future of the Nigerian economy is primarily dependent on a new generation of entrepreneurs who must have the vision to create wealth and jobs in addition to coming up with innovative ideas and being committed to seeing them through to completion. Nigerian culture must change in order to achieve this. In the Nigerian economy, entrepreneurship education is necessary to build wealth and raise the standard of life while also reducing unemployment, crime, government spending, poverty, and social unrest.
Conclusion
This study examined the connection between entrepreneurial education and Nigeria’s economic growth. The results demonstrated a substantial relationship or correlation between entrepreneurial education and Nigeria’s economic development. This implies that entrepreneurship education in Nigerian colleges has sparked a desire to capitalize on numerous business chances for Nigeria’s economic development. According to the findings, well-taught entrepreneurship courses that equip students with entrepreneurial knowledge and skills would encourage them to launch their own companies and contribute to Nigeria’s economic expansion.
Determining the elements that affect economic development is one of the primary objectives of contemporary economics. The impact of entrepreneurship on a nation’s economy is enormous. This is known to economists and decision-makers. In actuality, entrepreneurship is now viewed as a catalyst for the growth and advancement of productive endeavors in all spheres of global economic life. The study concludes that there is a stronger correlation between economic growth and entrepreneurial education than with foreign assistance which contends that entrepreneurial education is essential for unlocking economic growth, generating employment, and lowering poverty, among other things, in developing countries like Nigeria.
Recommendation
The recommendations that follow are offered in order for entrepreneurship education at Nigerian institutions to be a tool for economic growth: 1. Regular training in entrepreneurial education should be provided to all instructors and lecturers. Lecturers should be hired, trained, and re-trained in this area. To increase their knowledge and successfully teach students entrepreneurial abilities, they should be financially supported to attend regional and global conferences. 2. Graduating students who choose to start their own business should have access to enough resources, including funding.
3. The various university administrations might get in touch with banks or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to offer grants or low-interest loans to entrepreneurship instructors so they can launch and manage their own companies. Through their own efforts, they will be able to obtain real-world experience that they may then impart to the pupils. 4. The provision of suitable educational resources, local infrastructure, and support services to guarantee their applicability to the Nigerian context. 5. In order to promote entrepreneurship and boost efficiency, the federal, state, and local governments should supply the necessary social amenities, such as electricity, roads, and other infrastructure. 6. Particularly in the more remote areas, governments ought to implement policies that would assist in enhancing the physical infrastructure, such as power, broadband internet, and transportation.
7. To help entrepreneurs acquire new skills that will make them more productive and contribute more to economic growth and development, entrepreneurship skills centers should be set up in both rural and urban areas. 8. Governments ought to grant subsidies and tax breaks to businesses that provide excellent employee value propositions to potential professionals, such as specialized training or stock option programs. 9. To support the nation’s expansion and development, workshops, seminars, symposia, and lectures ought to be arranged.
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lie outside the unit circle.
) model is specified as:
} is said to follow an integrated autoregressive moving average model if the 
th difference 
is a stationary ARMA process. If 
follows an ARMA(p, q) model, we say that {
} is an ARIMA (p, d, q) process. For practical purposes, we can usually take 
or at most 2.
, we have
)
is the number of free parameters to be estimated in the model, T is the number of observations and L is the likelihood function defined as:
is the forecast value of the series and 
is the actual series and 
is the number of forecast observations.
is the actual value of the series at time 
is the forecasted value of the series and 
is the number of observations. The lower the value of RMSE and MAE, the better the model is able to forecast future values.
is stationary. Table 2 below presents the results of the ADF test under two specifications: with an intercept only, and with both intercept and trend.
stationary in its level form. Stationarity implies that the mean and variance of the diabetes case series remain stable over time, making it suitable for direct ARMA modeling without differencing. The strong evidence of stationarity enhances the reliability of subsequent short-term forecasts produced by the ARMA model.
. These values provide a range within which the true number of diabetes cases is expected to fall with high probability, thereby indicating the reliability and uncertainty of the forecasts. The forecast result is reported in Table 9 below while the forecast graph is presented as Figure 5 below too.
. LCL and UCL denote lower and upper confidence limits respectively.
Eduindex 
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